OPEN Foundation

Cacti / Mescaline

Chemistry and Structure-Activity Relationships of Psychedelics

March 26, 2017 / Cacti / Mescaline, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Neuroscience, Other subjects, Other substances, Papers, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By /

Abstract

This chapter will summarize structure-activity relationships (SAR) that are known for the classic serotonergic hallucinogens (aka psychedelics), focusing on the three chemical types: tryptamines, ergolines, and phenethylamines. In the brain, the serotonin 5-HT2Areceptor plays a key role in regulation of cortical function and cognition, and also appears to be the principal target for hallucinogenic/psychedelic drugs such as LSD. It is one of the most extensively studied of the 14 known types of serotonin receptors. Important structural features will be identified for activity and, where possible, those that the psychedelics have in common will be discussed. Because activation of the 5-HT2A receptor is the principal mechanism of action for psychedelics, compounds with 5-HT2A agonist activity generally are quickly discarded by the pharmaceutical industry. Thus, most of the research on psychedelics can be related to activation of 5-HT2A receptors. Therefore, much of the discussion will include not only clinical or anecdotal studies, but also will consider data from animal models as well as a certain amount of molecular pharmacology where it is known.
Nichols, D. E. (2017). Chemistry and Structure–Activity Relationships of Psychedelics. 10.1007/7854_2017_475
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Peyote as Commodity: An Examination of Market Actors and Access Mechanisms

March 1, 2017 / Cacti / Mescaline, Other disciplines, Other subjects, Papers, Publications, Religious studies / By /

Abstract

Access to the peyote cactus, a religious sacrament of the Native American Church (NAC), has been regulated by the federal government and the state of Texas since the 1960s. Over the last forty years, the number of licensed distributors has declined, a trend accompanied by rising prices and a diminishing market supply of the psychoactive cactus. Distributors are recognized as the primary NAC peyote source; consequently, their disappearance would be devastating for the 250,000-plus adherents of this distinctive indigenous tradition. Based on interviews with current and former peyote distributors, peyote pickers, landowners, and NAC members, a map of the various commodity chains that make up the peyote supply network is constructed. This research applies Access Mapping and Access Analysis of the supply network to identify the primary factors driving the decline of the regulated peyote trade. Focusing on the distributors’ and NAC members’ rights-based, structural, and relational access mechanisms, avenues for increasing access are identified, including amendment of distributor licensing fees.

Feeney, K. (2017). Peyote as Commodity: An Examination of Market Actors and Access Mechanisms. Human Organization, 76(1), 59-72. 10.17730/0018-7259.76.1.59
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Classical hallucinogens and neuroimaging: A systematic review of human studies: Hallucinogens and neuroimaging

October 31, 2016 / Ayahuasca, Cacti / Mescaline, DMT, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Neuroscience, Other subjects, Papers, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By / , , ,

Abstract

Serotonergic hallucinogens produce alterations of perceptions, mood, and cognition, and have anxiolytic, antidepressant, and antiaddictive properties. These drugs act as agonists of frontocortical 5-HT2A receptors, but the neural basis of their effects are not well understood. Thus, we conducted a systematic review of neuroimaging studies analyzing the effects of serotonergic hallucinogens in man. Studies published in the PubMed, Lilacs, and SciELO databases until 12 April 2016 were included using the following keywords: “ayahuasca”, “DMT”, “psilocybin”, “LSD”, “mescaline” crossed one by one with the terms “mri”, “fmri”, “pet”, “spect”, “imaging” and “neuroimaging”. Of 279 studies identified, 25 were included. Acute effects included excitation of frontolateral/frontomedial cortex, medial temporal lobe, and occipital cortex, and inhibition of the default mode network. Long-term use was associated with thinning of the posterior cingulate cortex, thickening of the anterior cingulate cortex, and decreased neocortical 5-HT2A receptor binding. Despite the high methodological heterogeneity and the small sample sizes, the results suggest that hallucinogens increase introspection and positive mood by modulating brain activity in the fronto-temporo-parieto-occipital cortex.

dos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A. S., & Hallak, J. E. (2016). Classical hallucinogens and neuroimaging: A systematic review of human studies: Hallucinogens and neuroimaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 71, 715-728. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.10.026
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Classic Psychedelics and Rational Suicide in the Elderly: Exploring the Potential Utility of a Reemerging Treatment Paradigm

October 29, 2016 / Ayahuasca, Cacti / Mescaline, DMT, LSD, Other subjects, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / ,

Abstract

The objective of the current chapter is to evaluate the potential utility of classic psychedelics including dimethyltryptamine (found in the Amazonian plant decoction ayahuasca), lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), mescaline (found in peyote and other psychoactive cacti), and psilocybin (found in certain mushrooms) in addressing rational suicide among the elderly. An overview of the sociopolitical history of classic psychedelics is presented, followed by an examination of empirical findings pertaining to rational suicide. This chapter concludes that classic psychedelics may counteract rational suicide among the elderly by promoting the perception that life is worth living even in the face of great adversity and encourages future study on this important topic.

Hendricks, P. S., & Grob, C. S. (2017). Classic Psychedelics and Rational Suicide in the Elderly: Exploring the Potential Utility of a Reemerging Treatment Paradigm. In Rational Suicide in the Elderly (pp. 203-210). Springer International Publishing. 10.1007/978-3-319-32672-6_14

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The Entheogen Reformation

October 1, 2016 / Ayahuasca, Cacti / Mescaline, Consciousness, History, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Mystical experiences, Papers, Personal development, Psychiatry, Psychology, Publications, Religious studies, Spirituality / By /

Abstract

In addition to promising leads for treating PTSD, addictions, depression, and death anxiety, 21st Century research at medical schools finds that with careful screening, insightful attention to the variables of set, setting, and dosage, psychedelic drug administration often facilitates significant spiritual experiences, meaningfulness, altruism, well-being, and similar prospiritual effects. This article calls for theologians, professors of religious studies, philosophy, sociology, and psychology to update their courses. It challenges leaders of religious organizations, ‘‘How can your institution incorporate these practices and benefit from them?’’

Roberts, T. B. (2016). THE ENTHEOGEN REFORMATION. Association for Transpersonal Psychology, 26.

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Clinical Applications of Hallucinogens: A Review

July 1, 2016 / Cacti / Mescaline, Iboga / Ibogaine, Ketamine, LSD, MDMA, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Other substances, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychotherapy, Publications, Salvia / Salvinorin A / By / , ,

Abstract

Hallucinogens fall into several different classes, as broadly defined by pharmacological mechanism of action, and chemical structure. These include psychedelics, entactogens, dissociatives, and other atypical hallucinogens. Although these classes do not share a common primary mechanism of action, they do exhibit important similarities in their ability to occasion temporary but profound alterations of consciousness, involving acute changes in somatic, perceptual, cognitive, and affective processes. Such effects likely contribute to their recreational use. However, a growing body of evidence indicates that these drugs may have therapeutic applications beyond their potential for abuse. This review will present data on several classes of hallucinogens with a particular focus on psychedelics, entactogens, and dissociatives, for which clinical utility has been most extensively documented. Information on each class is presented in turn, tracing relevant historical insights, highlighting similarities and differences between the classes from the molecular to the behavioral level, and presenting the most up-to-date information on clinically oriented research with these substances, with important ramifications for their potential therapeutic value.

Garcia-Romeu, A., Kersgaard, B., & Addy, P. H. (2016). Clinical applications of hallucinogens: A review. Experimental and clinical psychopharmacology, 24(4), 229. 10.1037/pha0000084
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Plant and Fungal Hallucinogens as Toxic and Therapeutic Agents

November 9, 2015 / Cacti / Mescaline, DMT, Ethnobotany, Indigenous use, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychotherapy, Publications, Salvia / Salvinorin A / By / ,

Abstract

This chapter aimed to provide an overview of the large number of hallucinogens of natural origin. Following a literature review, the following hallucinogens were selected for a detailed description that considered their essential chemical groups: indoleamines (N,N-dimethyltryptamine, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, bufotenine, psilocybin, and ibogaine), phenylethylamines (mescaline), tropane alkaloids (atropine and scopolamine), cannabinoids (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol), and a neoclerodane diterpenoid (salvinorin A). The following species were included as representative of each drug class: Mimosa tenuiflora, Psychotria viridis, Banisteriopsis caapi, Virola spp., Psilocybe spp., Tabernanthe iboga, Tabernaemontana spp., Lophophora spp., Trichocereus spp., Atropa belladonna, Brugmansia spp., Cannabis sativa, and Salvia divinorum, among others. In addition to psychopharmacological effects, this chapter aims to address the sociocultural and historical use of these hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, along with the importance of both the set and the setting factors that affect the profound consciousness-altering effects of these compounds. Moreover, the use of animal models to predict the hallucinogenic properties of psychoactive plants and compounds and to investigate the mechanisms of action of psychodysleptic drugs is discussed. This chapter also attempts to establish a parallel between hallucinogens and endogenous neurotransmitters in humans, to compare the pharmacological and psychic action of these compounds, to evaluate hallucinogens’ ability to produce symptoms typical of certain mental disorders during their use, and to investigate the role of these compounds as therapeutic agents in several psychopathological conditions.

Carlini, E. A., & Maia, L. O. (2015). Plant and Fungal Hallucinogens as Toxic and Therapeutic Agents.

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Psychedelic medicine: A re-emerging therapeutic paradigm

December 6, 2021 / Anxiety disorders / PTSD, Ayahuasca, Cacti / Mescaline, Depression, DMT, Ketamine, LSD, MDMA, Other subjects, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By / , , ,

Introduction

In clinical research settings around the world, renewed investigations are taking place on the use of psychedelic substances for treating illnesses such as addiction, depression, anxiety and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Since the termination of a period of research from the 1950s to the early 1970s, most psychedelic substances have been classified as “drugs of abuse” with no recognized medical value. However, controlled clinical studies have recently been conducted to assess the basic psychopharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy of these drugs as adjuncts to existing psychotherapeutic approaches. Central to this revival is the re-emergence of a paradigm that acknowledges the importance of set (i.e., psychological expectations), setting (i.e., physical environment) and the therapeutic clinician–patient relationship as critical elements for facilitating healing experiences and realizing positive outcomes [fusion_builder_container hundred_percent=”yes” overflow=”visible”][fusion_builder_row][fusion_builder_column type=”1_1″ background_position=”left top” background_color=”” border_size=”” border_color=”” border_style=”solid” spacing=”yes” background_image=”” background_repeat=”no-repeat” padding=”” margin_top=”0px” margin_bottom=”0px” class=”” id=”” animation_type=”” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_direction=”left” hide_on_mobile=”no” center_content=”no” min_height=”none”][…]

Tupper, K. W., Wood, E., Yensen, R., & Johnson, M. W. (2015). Psychedelic medicine: a re-emerging therapeutic paradigm. CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association journal= journal de l’Association medicale canadienne, 187(14), 1054. https://dx.doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.141124
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Psychedelics and creativity: a review of the quantitative literature

June 30, 2015 / Cacti / Mescaline, Consciousness, Creativity, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Other disciplines, Papers, Personal development, Psychology, Publications / By /

Abstract

After a 40-year hiatus, the question of whether psychedelics can increase creativity is being asked with renewed vigor. This article critically reviews the conceptual issues of studying psychedelic-induced creativity by summarizing the limited evidence on the question and suggesting two broader frameworks. There are two important challenges to researchers on this topic. One is to separate creativity from other effects of the drug that may be mistaken for creativity. The second is to develop operational measures to quantify it. This article reviews the major studies assessing creativity (or related constructs) induced by psychedelics, including a reanalysis of raw data from one study. Results are modest and inconclusive but are consistent with reports that psychedelics give rise to unusual or novel thoughts. Given the lack of robust changes in creativity measures, I suggest creativity may be too specific of a construct to accurately and fully characterize the putatively beneficial cognitive changes that psychedelic users report. Feelings of creativity may be an inconsistent result of a more general effect of these drugs, such as alterations in availability of mental representations or changes in Bayesian inference. Ultimately, creativity may not be a sufficiently creative construct to capture the beneficial effects of psychedelics.

Baggott, M. J. (2015). Psychedelics and creativity: a review of the quantitative literature. PeerJ PrePrints, 3, e1468. https://dx.doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.1202v1
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