OPEN Foundation

J. Crippa

Serotonergic hallucinogens and recognition of facial emotion expressions: a systematic review of the literature.

April 26, 2019 / Anxiety disorders / PTSD, Depression, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Neuroscience, Other subjects, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Psychotherapy, Publications / By / , , , , , ,

Abstract

BACKGROUND:
Recognition of emotions in facial expressions (REFE) is a key aspect of social cognition. Anxiety and mood disorders are associated with deficits in REFE, and anxiolytics and antidepressants reverse these deficits. Recent studies have shown that serotonergic hallucinogens (i.e. ayahuasca, dimethyltryptamine, psilocybin, lysergic acid diethylamide [LSD], and mescaline) have anxiolytic and antidepressant properties, but their effects on REFE are not well understood. The purpose of the study was to conduct a systematic review analyzing the effects of serotonergic hallucinogens on REFE in humans.
METHODS:
Studies published in the PubMed, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases until 19 October 2018 which analyzed the effects of serotonergic hallucinogens on REFE in humans were included.
RESULTS:
Of the 62 studies identified, 8 studies were included. Included studies involved the administration of a single or a few doses of LSD or psilocybin, and most trials were randomized and controlled with placebo. LSD and psilocybin reduced the recognition of negative emotions in most studies and modulated amygdala activity to these stimuli, which was correlated with antidepressive effects in patients. Both drugs were well tolerated.
CONCLUSIONS:
Serotonergic hallucinogens reduced the recognition of negative emotions by modulating amygdala activity. Despite the small sample sizes, results suggest that serotonergic hallucinogens show promising beneficial effects on deficits in REFE.
Rocha, J. M., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A. S., Bouso, J. C., Rossi, G. N., Hallak, J. E., & dos Santos, R. G. (2019). Serotonergic hallucinogens and recognition of facial emotion expressions: a systematic review of the literature. Therapeutic advances in psychopharmacology, 9, 2045125319845774., https://doi.org/10.1177/2045125319845774
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Possible Interactions Between 5-HT2A Receptors and the Endocannabinoid System in Humans: Preliminary Evidence of Interactive Effects of Ayahuasca and Endocannabinoids in a Healthy Human Subject

December 1, 2018 / Ayahuasca, Depression, Medicine, Neuroscience, Papers, Psychopharmacology, Psychotherapy, Publications / By / , , , , , ,

Excerpt

To the Editors

Ayahuasca is an ethnobotanical hallucinogenic preparation traditionally used for ritual and therapeutic purposes in the Northwestern Amazon Basin. It is prepared by the decoction of the bark of the vine Banisteriopsis caapi with the leaves of the shrub Psychotria viridis. Banisteriopsis caapi contains the β-carbolines harmine, tetrahydroharmine, and harmaline, which are reversible inhibitors of monoamine oxidase type A (MAO-A), whereas P. viridis contains N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), an agonist at 5-HT1A/2A/2C receptors. Pure DMT is not active orally because it is metabolized by MAO-A, but the β-carbolines in ayahuasca inhibit peripheral MAO-A and allow DMT to reach the brain. The β-carbolines also reach the systemic circulation in humans, but their effects are poorly characterized.

A recent randomized controlled trial (RCT) with 29 patients with treatment-resistant depression showed that, compared with placebo, a single ayahuasca dose induced significant antidepressant effects 7 days after drug intake. The mechanisms behind these effects are not clear but seem to involve agonism at cortical 5-HT2A receptors in brain areas related to emotional processing. 5-HT2A receptor activation also leads to the formation and release of endocannabinoids (ECs), and both the production and release of the EC 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) are induced by 5-HT2A agonists. Considering that the 5-HT2Areceptor and the EC system (ECS) are coexpressed in brain regions related to emotional processing, they could be involved in the antidepressive effect of ayahuasca. To test the possible interaction between both systems, we administered in an open-label design a single oral ayahuasca dose (1 mL/kg) to a healthy 34-year-old man and assessed subjective effects (Visual Analog Mood Scale [VAMS], Bodily Symptoms Scale, Beck Anxiety Inventory [BAI]), tolerability (blood pressure and heart rate, self-report), and EC plasma levels (anandamide [AEA], 2-AG) at several time points: VAMS, Bodily Symptoms Scale, blood pressure, and heart rate at baseline and 40, 90, 120, 150, and 240 minutes after drug intake; BAI–baseline, 240 minutes after drug intake; AEA, 2-AG (blood samples) at baseline and 90 and 240 minutes after drug intake. Analysis of the ayahuasca sample using gas chromatography with nitrogen-phosphorus detection showed the following alkaloid content (in mg/mL): 0.702 DMT, 1.748 harmine, 0.780 tetrahydroharmine, and 0.039 harmaline. Analysis of plasma ECs was performed using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Detailed information on subjective measures and ayahuasca and EC analyses is described in the Supplemental Digital Content, http://links.lww.com/JCP/A532

The volunteer was not taking any medication and was requested to abstain from alcohol, tobacco, and caffeinated drinks 12 hours before ayahuasca intake. He arrived in the laboratory at 7:00 AM under fasting conditions, and urinalysis for illicit drug use was performed before ayahuasca intake (the test measured cannabis and cocaine and was negative for both drugs). Afterward, a cannula was introduced in his arm for collecting blood samples. Ayahuasca was administered at approximately 8:00 AM, and the experimental session lasted 5 hours. The experimental session consisted in the administration of the drug followed by application of the scales and assessment of tolerability measures at the aforementioned time points. During measurements, the volunteer remained seated in a comfortable reclining chair in a quiet dimly lit room. There was no psychological intervention before, during, or after the session.The volunteer remained in the laboratory under observation to see if the effects had subsided and was discharged around 6 hours after drug intake, which is the approximate duration of the psychoactive effects of ayahuasca.

dos Santos, R. G., Crippa, J. A., de Lima Osório, F., Rocha, J. M., Rossi, G. N., Marchioni, C., … & Hallak, J. E. C. (2018). Possible Interactions Between 5-HT2A Receptors and the Endocannabinoid System in Humans: Preliminary Evidence of Interactive Effects of Ayahuasca and Endocannabinoids in a Healthy Human Subject. Journal of clinical psychopharmacology, 38(6), 644-646., 10.1097/JCP.0000000000000973
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Well-being, problematic alcohol consumption and acute subjective drug effects in past-year ayahuasca users: a large, international, self-selecting online survey

November 9, 2017 / Addiction, Ayahuasca, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , , , , , ,

Abstract

Ayahuasca is a natural psychedelic brew, which contains dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Its potential as a psychiatric medicine has recently been demonstrated and its non-medical use around the world appears to be growing. We aimed to investigate well-being and problematic alcohol use in ayahuasca users, and ayahuasca’s subjective effects. An online, self-selecting, global survey examining patterns of drug use was conducted in 2015 and 2016 (n = 96,901). Questions were asked about: use of ayahuasca, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and magic mushrooms; demographics, current well-being and past-year problematic alcohol use of past-year ayahuasca users and comparison drug users; and subjective effects of ayahuasca and comparison drugs. Ayahuasca users (n = 527) reported greater well-being than both classic psychedelic users (n = 18,138) and non-psychedelic drug-using respondents (n = 78,236). Ayahuasca users reported less problematic drinking than classic psychedelic users, although both groups reported greater problematic drinking than the other respondents. Ayahuasca’s acute subjective effects usually lasted for six hours and were most strongly felt one hour after consumption. Within our online, self-selecting survey, ayahuasca users reported better well-being than comparison groups and less problematic drinking than classic psychedelic users. Future longitudinal studies of international samples and randomised controlled trials are needed to dissect the effects of ayahuasca on these outcomes.
Lawn, W., Hallak, J. E., Crippa, J. A., Santos, R., Porffy, L., Barratt, M. J., … & Morgan, C. J. (2017). Well-being, problematic alcohol consumption and acute subjective drug effects in past-year ayahuasca users: a large, international, self-selecting online survey. Scientific reports, 7(1), 15201. 10.1038/s41598-017-14700-6
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Anxiety, panic, and hopelessness during and after ritual ayahuasca intake in a woman with generalized anxiety disorder: A case report

April 24, 2017 / Anxiety disorders / PTSD, Ayahuasca, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology / By / , , ,

Abstract

Background and aims

Ayahuasca is a dimethyltryptamine- and β-carboline-rich hallucinogenic beverage traditionally used by indigenous groups of Northwest Amazonian for ritual and therapeutic purposes. Animal and human studies suggest that ayahuasca has antidepressant and anxiolytic potentials and has a good safety profile. However, anxiety-like reactions may also occur after ayahuasca intake, although they are rare.

Methods

Case report.

Results

Here, we describe a case of a non-medicated, symptom-free young female with generalized anxiety disorder, who experienced intense anxiety, panic, and hopelessness during and for 3 days after participating in an ayahuasca ritual. The symptoms appeared in the first hours after ayahuasca intake and were gradually reducing in the following hours/days, but were intense enough to cause significant suffering to her, who needed to seek psychiatric help and restarted pharmacological treatment.

Conclusions

Although “bad/horror trips” with anxiety features may occur during the acute effects of ayahuasca and other hallucinogens, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of a subacute/prolonged anxiety-like reaction to this substance. Ayahuasca should be used with caution in people with a history of anxiety disorders.

dos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A. S., & C. Hallak, J. E. (2017). Anxiety, panic, and hopelessness during and after ritual ayahuasca intake in a woman with generalized anxiety disorder: A case report. Journal of Psychedelic Studies, 1(1), 35-39. 10.1556/2054.01.2017.004
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Classical hallucinogens and neuroimaging: A systematic review of human studies: Hallucinogens and neuroimaging

October 31, 2016 / Ayahuasca, Cacti / Mescaline, DMT, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Neuroscience, Other subjects, Papers, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By / , , ,

Abstract

Serotonergic hallucinogens produce alterations of perceptions, mood, and cognition, and have anxiolytic, antidepressant, and antiaddictive properties. These drugs act as agonists of frontocortical 5-HT2A receptors, but the neural basis of their effects are not well understood. Thus, we conducted a systematic review of neuroimaging studies analyzing the effects of serotonergic hallucinogens in man. Studies published in the PubMed, Lilacs, and SciELO databases until 12 April 2016 were included using the following keywords: “ayahuasca”, “DMT”, “psilocybin”, “LSD”, “mescaline” crossed one by one with the terms “mri”, “fmri”, “pet”, “spect”, “imaging” and “neuroimaging”. Of 279 studies identified, 25 were included. Acute effects included excitation of frontolateral/frontomedial cortex, medial temporal lobe, and occipital cortex, and inhibition of the default mode network. Long-term use was associated with thinning of the posterior cingulate cortex, thickening of the anterior cingulate cortex, and decreased neocortical 5-HT2A receptor binding. Despite the high methodological heterogeneity and the small sample sizes, the results suggest that hallucinogens increase introspection and positive mood by modulating brain activity in the fronto-temporo-parieto-occipital cortex.

dos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A. S., & Hallak, J. E. (2016). Classical hallucinogens and neuroimaging: A systematic review of human studies: Hallucinogens and neuroimaging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 71, 715-728. 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.10.026
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Effects of Ayahuasca and its Alkaloids on Drug Dependence: A Systematic Literature Review of Quantitative Studies in Animals and Humans

May 26, 2016 / Addiction, Ayahuasca, Neuroscience, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By / , , , , ,

Abstract

Recently, the anti-addictive potential of ayahuasca, a dimethyltryptamine(DMT)- and β-carboline-rich hallucinogenic beverage traditionally used by indigenous groups of the Northwest Amazon and currently by syncretic churches worldwide, has received increased attention. To better evaluate this topic, we performed a systematic literature review using the PubMed database to find quantitative studies (using statistical analysis) that assessed the effects of ayahuasca or its components in drug-related symptoms or disorders. We found five animal studies (using harmaline, harmine, or ayahuasca) and five observational studies of regular ayahuasca consumers. All animal studies showed improvement of biochemical or behavioral parameters related to drug-induced disorders. Of the five human studies, four reported significant reductions of dependence symptoms or substance use, while one did not report significant results. The mechanisms responsible for the anti-addictive properties of ayahuasca and its alkaloids are not clarified, apparently involving both peripheral MAO-A inhibition by the β-carbolines and central agonism of DMT at 5-HT2A receptors expressed in brain regions related to the regulation of mood and emotions. Although results are promising, controlled studies are needed to replicate these preliminary findings.

Nunes, A. A., dos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Sanches, R. F., Crippa, J. A. S., & Hallak, J. E. (2016). Effects of Ayahuasca and its Alkaloids on Drug Dependence: A Systematic Literature Review of Quantitative Studies in Animals and Humans. Journal of psychoactive drugs, 1-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2016.1188225

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Antidepressive and anxiolytic effects of ayahuasca: a systematic literature review of animal and human studies

March 24, 2016 / Anxiety disorders / PTSD, Ayahuasca, Depression, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Publications / By / , , ,

Abstract

Objective:

To conduct a systematic literature review of animal and human studies reporting anxiolytic or antidepressive effects of ayahuasca or some of its isolated alkaloids (dimethyltryptamine, harmine, tetrahydroharmine, and harmaline).

Methods:

Papers published until 3 April 2015 were retrieved from the PubMed, LILACS and SciELO databases following a comprehensive search strategy and using a predetermined set of criteria for article selection.

Results:

Five hundred and fourteen studies were identified, of which 21 met the established criteria. Studies in animals have shown anxiolytic and antidepressive effects of ayahuasca, harmine, and harmaline, and experimental studies in humans and mental health assessments of experienced ayahuasca consumers also suggest that ayahuasca is associated with reductions in anxiety and depressive symptoms. A pilot study reported rapid antidepressive effects of a single ayahuasca dose in six patients with recurrent depression.

Conclusion:

Considering the need for new drugs that produce fewer adverse effects and are more effective in reducing anxiety and depression symptomatology, the described effects of ayahuasca and its alkaloids should be further investigated.

dos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A. S., & Hallak, J. E. (2016). Antidepressive and anxiolytic effects of ayahuasca: a systematic literature review of animal and human studies. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria, 38(1), 65-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2015-1701
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Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): a systematic review of clinical trials published in the last 25 years

March 18, 2016 / Addiction, Anxiety disorders / PTSD, Ayahuasca, Depression, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Publications / By / , , , , ,

Abstract

To date, pharmacological treatments for mood and anxiety disorders and for drug dependence show limited efficacy, leaving a large number of patients suffering severe and persistent symptoms. Preliminary studies in animals and humans suggest that ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) may have antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive properties. Thus, we conducted a systematic review of clinical trials published from 1990 until 2015, assessing these therapeutic properties. Electronic searches were performed using the PubMed, LILACS, and SciELO databases. Only clinical trials published in peer-reviewed journals were included. Of these, 151 studies were identified, of which six met the established criteria. Reviewed studies suggest beneficial effects for treatment-resistant depression, anxiety and depression associated with life-threatening diseases, and tobacco and alcohol dependence. All drugs were well tolerated. In conclusion, ayahuasca, psilocybin and LSD may be useful pharmacological tools for the treatment of drug dependence, and anxiety and mood disorders, especially in treatment-resistant patients. These drugs may also be useful pharmacological tools to understand psychiatric disorders and to develop new therapeutic agents. However, all studies reviewed had small sample sizes, and half of them were open-label, proof-of-concept studies. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies with more patients are needed to replicate these preliminary findings.

dos Santos, R. G., Osório, F. L., Crippa, J. A. S., Riba, J., Zuardi, A. W., & Hallak, J. E. (2016). Antidepressive, anxiolytic, and antiaddictive effects of ayahuasca, psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD): a systematic review of clinical trials published in the last 25 years. Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology, 2045125316638008.

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The Psychedelic State Induced by Ayahuasca Modulates the Activity and Connectivity of the Default Mode Network

February 18, 2015 / Ayahuasca, Neuroscience, Other subjects, Papers, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By / , , , , , ,

Abstract

The experiences induced by psychedelics share a wide variety of subjective features, related to the complex changes in perception and cognition induced by this class of drugs. A remarkable increase in introspection is at the core of these altered states of consciousness. Self-oriented mental activity has been consistently linked to the Default Mode Network (DMN), a set of brain regions more active during rest than during the execution of a goal-directed task. Here we used fMRI technique to inspect the DMN during the psychedelic state induced by Ayahuasca in ten experienced subjects. Ayahuasca is a potion traditionally used by Amazonian Amerindians composed by a mixture of compounds that increase monoaminergic transmission. In particular, we examined whether Ayahuasca changes the activity and connectivity of the DMN and the connection between the DMN and the task-positive network (TPN). Ayahuasca caused a significant decrease in activity through most parts of the DMN, including its most consistent hubs: the Posterior Cingulate Cortex (PCC)/Precuneus and the medial Prefrontal Cortex (mPFC). Functional connectivity within the PCC/Precuneus decreased after Ayahuasca intake. No significant change was observed in the DMN-TPN orthogonality. Altogether, our results support the notion that the altered state of consciousness induced by Ayahuasca, like those induced by psilocybin (another serotonergic psychedelic), meditation and sleep, is linked to the modulation of the activity and the connectivity of the DMN.

Palhano-Fontes, F., Andrade, K. C., Tofoli, L. F., Santos, A. C., Crippa, J., Hallak, J. A., … Araujo, D. B. (2015). The Psychedelic State Induced by Ayahuasca Modulates the Activity and Connectivity of the Default Mode Network. PLoS One. https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118143
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Salvinorin A and Related Compounds as Therapeutic Drugs for Psychostimulant-Related Disorders

January 28, 2015 / Addiction, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications, Safety, Salvia / Salvinorin A / By / , , ,

Abstract

Pharmacological treatments are available for alcohol, nicotine, and opioid dependence, and several drugs for cannabis-related disorders are currently under investigation. On the other hand, psychostimulant abuse and dependence lacks pharmacological treatment. Mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons mediate the motivation to use drugs and drug-induced euphoria, and psychostimulants (cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine) produce their effects in these neurons, which may be modulated by the opioid system. Salvinorin A is a κ-opioid receptor agonist extracted from Salvia divinorum, a hallucinogenic plant used in magico-ritual contexts by Mazateca Indians in México. Salvinorin A and its analogues have demonstrated anti-addiction effects in animal models using psychostimulants by attenuating dopamine release, sensitization, and other neurochemical and behavioral alterations associated with acute and prolonged administration of these drugs. The objective of the present article is to present an overview of the preclinical evidence suggesting anti-addictive effects of salvinorin A and its analogues.

dos Santos, R. G., Crippa, J. A., Machado-de-Sousa, J. P., & Hallak, J. E. (2015). Salvinorin A and Related Compounds as Therapeutic Drugs for Psychostimulant-Related Disorders. Current Drug Abuse Reviews, 7(2), 128-132. https://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874473708666150107122741

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30 April - Q&A with Rick Strassman

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