OPEN Foundation

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Sacred Knowledge – Psychedelics and Religious Experiences

Sacred Knowledge. Psychedelics and Religious Experiences. William A. Richards. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN: 9780231174060

William A. (Bill) Richards is one of the few people alive today that were involved both in the first wave of scientific research into psychedelic substances in the sixties and seventies and in the current era of psychedelics research. It is hard to imagine someone better equipped to discuss the value of religious, spiritual or mystical experiences, occurring spontaneously or occasioned by psychedelic substances, than Richards, who has a formal training in clinical psychology, comparative religion, theology and psychology of religion as well as personal experience with psychedelic and mystical states.

Without explicitly acknowledging it, Sacred Knowledge picks up where William James’ classic The Varieties of Religious Experience left the reader wondering about mystical experiences occasioned by psychedelic substances. With a single unsuccessful attempt with mescaline, and only ephemeral insights provoked by nitrous oxide, James never dedicated a chapter to exogenously engendered mystical states of consciousness. Richards dedicates a whole book to the subject, and eloquently acquaints the reader with the many facets of mystical experiences occasioned by psychedelics. Sacred Knowledge is not just a scholarly work on the overlap between psychedelics and mysticism, but also a personal and professional history of Richards’ relation with these topics.

After providing a historical overview of research with psychedelics and detailing how he himself became immersed in the topic, Richards distinguishes between visionary and mystical states of consciousness, and dedicates a chapter to each of the core features of mystical experiences, such as intuitive knowledge of the divine (regardless of whether one names it God, Allah, Yahweh, Brahman, Celestial Buddha Fields or The Void), feelings of unity, and the ineffability of the experience (although Richards does an impressive job of articulating it).

He addresses several common themes, related by mystics throughout history and across cultures, such as the claim that ultimately, love is at the core of everything and that consciousness is indestructible. Richards manages to address these topics with academic rigour without depreciating the values and content of the experiences described in this book. The author also doesn’t shy away from addressing some of the deep metaphysical, ontological and existential questions that are encountered by many who have experienced mystical states of consciousness. What is the meaning of life? What is God? To address these profound matters, Richards draws just as easily from Ancient Greek philosophers, Biblical references such as Saul’s conversion on the road to Damascus, or Dante’s Divina Commedia as from his personal experiences or the words of dying patients.

The third part focuses on (inter)personal aspects, such as the importance of trust in facilitating beneficial experiences. It also deals with difficult experiences, such as fear, anxiety and despair and how to confront these. Richards reflects upon death and how death is dealt with in Western society, and dedicates a chapter to what is arguably the biggest challenge with profoundly meaningful experiences: how to fully integrate the insights obtained into one’s life. He offers guidelines on how to maximise beneficial experiences and to reduce the potential risks. In part IV, Richards provides an overview of current research as well as avenues for future studies into the potential applications of psychedelic substances in education, medicine, and religion. At the end of the book, he shares some insights collected over the years, as well as an extensive music playlist, used at numerous psychedelic sessions, listened to by hundreds of participants and perfected over decades of research, both wonderful bonuses.

Richards’ extensive experience in dealing with alternative states of consciousness (he prefers this term to altered states), in guiding volunteers, patients and research participants through these states and in trying to understand these profound changes in consciousness, has made him a kind, yet critical, observer. He provides ample proof for his main thesis: i.e. that psychedelics, when given to well-prepared subjects in a trusting, supportive setting, and under the guidance of an experienced and empathic guide, reliably produce tangible benefits.

It is hard to imagine a better advocate for the responsible use of psychedelics to promote spiritual, psychological or educational well-being than Bill Richards. The treasure trove of valuable experiences, expertise, knowledge and understanding Bill Richards has acquired over the decades, and which he shares with us in Sacred Knowledge, makes this a valuable work and a real treat to read. The beautiful, subtle design of this hardcover edition (by no means a trivial aspect) will undoubtedly contribute to the reading experience. Few people could have written Sacred Knowledge and even fewer people could have done it so eloquently. It is highly recommended to anyone who is interested in mystical experiences or the potential uses of psychedelic substances, but should be just as relevant to well-informed academics with an interest in profound, life-changing alternative states of consciousness.

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Read our interview with Bill Richards.

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Therapy with Substance: Psycholytic psychotherapy in the twenty-first century

Therapy with substanceTherapy with Substance: Psycholytic psychotherapy in the twenty first century door Dr Friederike Meckel Fischer, Muswell Hill Press, 2015.

Daar waar psychotherapie en psychedelica overlappen, zijn er twee belangrijke scholen: die van de psychedelische therapie, die in de VS het meest populair is en probeert om mensen middels een zeer beperkt aantal sessies en hoge dosissen een complete mystieke ervaring te geven. Op deze manier wordt er geprobeerd om mensen te helpen hun problemen op te lossen of hen een bepaalde staat van bewustzijn te doen bereiken die ervoor zorgt dat hun leven positief verandert. De therapeut blijft doorgaans stil tijdens de psychedelische sessies en laat gebeuren wat zich aandient. Bij psycholytische therapie, aan de andere kant, zijn er over het algemeen meer sessies, hanteert men lagere doseringen van een psychedelische substantie, en probeert men om de oorzaken van de problemen in iemands leven naar boven te brengen. Door hierop in te gaan en erover te praten tijdens de ervaring ontstaat er inzicht en worden de problemen opgelost. Deze benadering was voornamelijk populair in Europa en vindt vandaag de dag nog op onofficiële wijze plaats.

Dr. Meckel Fischer is een arts die veel verschillende manieren van genezing heeft onderzocht, onder andere Holotropic Breathwork met Stanislav Grof en psycholytische therapie met de Zwitserse medische vereniging voor psycholytische therapie (SAEPT) onder begeleiding van Samuel Widmer. Ze beoefende een tijdlang psycholytische therapie (wat op dat moment illegaal was geworden), totdat een van haar cliënten haar aangaf bij de politie. Ze moest in Zwitserland voor de rechtbank verschijnen en werd veroordeeld. Dit maakte het voor haar mogelijk om haar ervaringen te beschrijven zonder angst om opnieuw te worden veroordeeld. Het resultaat is een boek met een fascinerend persoonlijk verhaal over de manier waarop ze zelf heeft geleerd van psycholytische therapie en over de inzichten die ze heeft verworven tijdens haar vele jaren ervaring met het behandelen van mensen.

De eerste drie hoofdstukken gaan over Dr. Meckel Fischer’s persoonlijke weg naar genezing en inzicht door verschillende soorten therapie na een diepe crisis in een van haar relaties. Ze begon met reguliere cognitieve therapie, maar ruilde die snel in voor dieptepsychologie en vervolgens voor transpersoonlijke psychotherapie met de hulp van holotropisch ademwerk onder begeleiding van Grof. Op een gegeven moment wees Grof haar in de richting van therapie met psychedelische stoffen en volgde ze deze. Naar buiten toe stelde ze dat ze het slechts om professionele redenen deed, terwijl ze er op het zelfde moment achter kwam dat het ook voor haar persoonlijk erg behulpzaam was.

De auteur gaat verder met een korte beschrijving van wat psychotherapie volgens haar betekent. Ze benadrukt dat er een motivatie moet zijn om te veranderen, maar dat deze verandering alleen kan worden geïnitieerd als het onbewuste materiaal naar de oppervlakte wordt gelaten. Effectieve therapie en duurzame verandering kunnen alleen plaatsvinden als de kern van het probleem wordt aangeboord, wat betekent dat de onbewuste en voorbewuste oorzaken, die zich bevinden in de transpersoonlijke en perinatale domeinen die Grof benadrukt, worden toegelaten tot het bewustzijn om geïntegreerd te worden. Meckel Fischer denkt dat traditionele psychotherapie niet op dit niveau werkt en daardoor slechts zelden effectief is in de behandeling van diepere problemen.

Vervolgens beschrijft ze de verschillende stoffen die in de psycholytische therapie worden gebruikt, en laat ze zien hoe die allemaal zowel unieke als universele eigenschappen hebben. Ze erkent dat mensen kunnen en moeten leren werken met deze stoffen en dat de eerste sessies richting en doelmatigheid kunnen missen. Met de tijd en ervaring krijgen de sessies meer focus en leren mensen hoe ze meer doelbewust toegang kunnen krijgen tot hun onbewuste. Meckel Fischer is van mening dat iedere gids in een psycholytische therapeutische sessie de stof samen met de patiënt zou moeten nemen, omdat dit hem helpt om te voelen wat er omgaat in de deelnemer: “Een berggids kan een wandelaar niet leiden door een gebied dat hij niet persoonlijk heeft verkend”. Ze heeft overtuigende argumenten voor deze manier van denken, die vanuit een westers medisch perspectief controversieel kunnen overkomen.

Meckel Fischer beschrijft een aantal hulpmiddelen die de gids kunnen helpen tijdens de psycholytische therapie. Deze middelen zijn vrij specifiek voor haar, omdat ze geënt zijn op haar professionele ervaring en achtergrond, maar ze kunnen tot op zekere hoogte worden gegeneraliseerd. Eronder vallen: de therapeut, de stof, gezinswerk, live-body-work, de groep en muziek. Al deze aspecten beïnvloeden de ervaring en sommige ervan kunnen worden gebruikt om een intern proces bij de patiënt op gang te trekken of te verdiepen. Deze middelen worden ingezet tijdens de hele duur van de sessie. De reeks sessies beweegt een persoon door verschillende fases: van beginner tot gevorderde, van het begin van de weg naar zelfherkenning tot het kennen van de weg en de mogelijkheid vinden om zelf verder te gaan.

Verder laat ze ook de verschillende stappen zien die worden gevolgd om het diepe onbewuste materiaal te integreren, vanaf het therapeutische kernprobleem, door de psychosomatiek, epigenetische en perinatale ervaringen, tot aan de spirituele ervaringen. Meckel Fischer geeft veel voorbeelden en laat zien hoezeer de verhalen van de mensen die ze heeft begeleid passen binnen de stappen die ze opsomt. Het lijkt een universeel proces te zijn dat lijkt op de heldenreis, die werd gepopulariseerd door Joseph Campbell.

De auteur eindigt met een discussie over de gevaren en bijwerkingen van de psychoactieve stoffen in de psycholytische therapie. Een van de meest belangrijke gevaren is natuurlijk de illegaliteit, ook al gelooft ze dat dit onder bepaalde omstandigheden de deelnemers kan helpen om verantwoordelijkheid te nemen in het proces waar ze aan deelnemen. Kort brengt ze het psycholytisch therapeutisch proces in verband met sjamanisme, genezing en spiritualiteit, maar gaat niet echt diep in op deze ideeën. In de conclusie geeft ze hints naar wat er voorbij de psycholytische therapie ligt: iets wat geen therapie meer is, maar wat ons wereldbeeld heelt en ons meer integreert in onze omgeving en onze manier van kijken holistischer maakt.

Soms wordt de indruk gewekt dat de auteur al te gemakkelijk claimt dat haar persoonlijke ervaringen met bepaalde stoffen universeel zijn; dit is in het bijzonder te merken in de beschrijving van de effecten van de verschillende stoffen. In andere gevallen erkent ze dat haar ervaring haar eigen is, maar over het algemeen is de toon van de eerste voorbeelden zo dat het lijkt alsof ze het toch anders ziet. Meckel Fischer heeft het over een enkele manier waarop psycholytische therapie geconceptualiseerd en bedreven kan worden, en lijkt niet in te zien dat andere methodes mogelijk zijn. Toch klinkt de wijsheid in het boek oprecht. Er zijn kleine pareltjes van wijsheid waarvan men realiseert dat er een diepere waarheid achter schuilt, zoals: “De intentie zoals deze wordt geuit op de avond voor de sessie is de eerste stap in het proces van integratie”. Andere lijken tegengesteld aan het idee dat een enkele sessie genoeg zou zijn: “De vaardigheid om ‘onder invloed’ te zijn, en te leren om in die toestand het innerlijke zelf op geconcentreerde en gedisciplineerde wijze gade te slaan, neemt toe naarmate men oefent.”

Al met al biedt het boek een boeiende kijk op een veelbelovende manier waarop psychedelica gebruikt kunnen worden. Deze benadering zou vrij gemakkelijk in onze maatschappij kunnen worden geïntegreerd, omdat ze ingebouwde mechanismen bevat die de risico’s minimaliseren en de positieve resultaten optimaliseren, en bovendien medisch en psychologisch toezicht inhoudt. Het is een actueel boek, dat kan helpen om het vak van psycholytische therapie te institutionaliseren in iets wat geleerd, beoefend en aan anderen kan worden onderwezen door ervaring. Meckel Fischer pleit er ook overtuigend voor dat ervaren beoefenaars nieuwelingen zouden helpen. Ook worden stoornissen op een meer integrale en holistische wijze bekeken, wat laat zien dat niemand compleet mentaal gezond of gestoord is, maar dat iedereen baat kan hebben bij diepgaande therapie. Het is een boek voor al wie geïnteresseerd is in het doen van serieus therapeutisch werk met psychedelica, ofwel alleen, of – wanneer de juridische restricties worden opgeheven – in de vorm van individuele of groepstherapie.

Koop dit boek via bookdepository.com en steun daarmee stichting OPEN

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[Boekrecensie] Therapy with Substance: Psycholytic psychotherapy in the twenty first century

Therapy with substanceTherapy with Substance: Psycholytic psychotherapy in the twenty first century door Dr Friederike Meckel Fischer, Muswell Hill Press, 2015.

Daar waar psychotherapie en psychedelica overlappen, zijn er twee belangrijke scholen: die van de psychedelische therapie, die in de VS het meest populair is en probeert om mensen middels een zeer beperkt aantal sessies en hoge dosissen een complete mystieke ervaring te geven. Op deze manier wordt er geprobeerd om mensen te helpen hun problemen op te lossen of hen een bepaalde staat van bewustzijn te doen bereiken die ervoor zorgt dat hun leven positief verandert. De therapeut blijft doorgaans stil tijdens de psychedelische sessies en laat gebeuren wat zich aandient. Bij psycholytische therapie, aan de andere kant, zijn er over het algemeen meer sessies, hanteert men lagere doseringen van een psychedelische substantie, en probeert men om de oorzaken van de problemen in iemands leven naar boven te brengen. Door hierop in te gaan en erover te praten tijdens de ervaring ontstaat er inzicht en worden de problemen opgelost. Deze benadering was voornamelijk populair in Europa en vindt vandaag de dag nog op onofficiële wijze plaats.

Dr. Meckel Fischer is een arts die veel verschillende manieren van genezing heeft onderzocht, onder andere Holotropic Breathwork met Stanislav Grof en psycholytische therapie met de Zwitserse medische vereniging voor psycholytische therapie (SAEPT) onder begeleiding van Samuel Widmer. Ze beoefende een tijdlang psycholytische therapie (wat op dat moment illegaal was geworden), totdat een van haar cliënten haar aangaf bij de politie. Ze moest in Zwitserland voor de rechtbank verschijnen en werd veroordeeld. Dit maakte het voor haar mogelijk om haar ervaringen te beschrijven zonder angst om opnieuw te worden veroordeeld. Het resultaat is een boek met een fascinerend persoonlijk verhaal over de manier waarop ze zelf heeft geleerd van psycholytische therapie en over de inzichten die ze heeft verworven tijdens haar vele jaren ervaring met het behandelen van mensen.

De eerste drie hoofdstukken gaan over Dr. Meckel Fischer’s persoonlijke weg naar genezing en inzicht door verschillende soorten therapie na een diepe crisis in een van haar relaties. Ze begon met reguliere cognitieve therapie, maar ruilde die snel in voor dieptepsychologie en vervolgens voor transpersoonlijke psychotherapie met de hulp van holotropisch ademwerk onder begeleiding van Grof. Op een gegeven moment wees Grof haar in de richting van therapie met psychedelische stoffen en volgde ze deze. Naar buiten toe stelde ze dat ze het slechts om professionele redenen deed, terwijl ze er op het zelfde moment achter kwam dat het ook voor haar persoonlijk erg behulpzaam was.

De auteur gaat verder met een korte beschrijving van wat psychotherapie volgens haar betekent. Ze benadrukt dat er een motivatie moet zijn om te veranderen, maar dat deze verandering alleen kan worden geïnitieerd als het onbewuste materiaal naar de oppervlakte wordt gelaten. Effectieve therapie en duurzame verandering kunnen alleen plaatsvinden als de kern van het probleem wordt aangeboord, wat betekent dat de onbewuste en voorbewuste oorzaken, die zich bevinden in de transpersoonlijke en perinatale domeinen die Grof benadrukt, worden toegelaten tot het bewustzijn om geïntegreerd te worden. Meckel Fischer denkt dat traditionele psychotherapie niet op dit niveau werkt en daardoor slechts zelden effectief is in de behandeling van diepere problemen.

Vervolgens beschrijft ze de verschillende stoffen die in de psycholytische therapie worden gebruikt, en laat ze zien hoe die allemaal zowel unieke als universele eigenschappen hebben. Ze erkent dat mensen kunnen en moeten leren werken met deze stoffen en dat de eerste sessies richting en doelmatigheid kunnen missen. Met de tijd en ervaring krijgen de sessies meer focus en leren mensen hoe ze meer doelbewust toegang kunnen krijgen tot hun onbewuste. Meckel Fischer is van mening dat iedere gids in een psycholytische therapeutische sessie de stof samen met de patiënt zou moeten nemen, omdat dit hem helpt om te voelen wat er omgaat in de deelnemer: “Een berggids kan een wandelaar niet leiden door een gebied dat hij niet persoonlijk heeft verkend”. Ze heeft overtuigende argumenten voor deze manier van denken, die vanuit een westers medisch perspectief controversieel kunnen overkomen.

Meckel Fischer beschrijft een aantal hulpmiddelen die de gids kunnen helpen tijdens de psycholytische therapie. Deze middelen zijn vrij specifiek voor haar, omdat ze geënt zijn op haar professionele ervaring en achtergrond, maar ze kunnen tot op zekere hoogte worden gegeneraliseerd. Eronder vallen: de therapeut, de stof, gezinswerk, live-body-work, de groep en muziek. Al deze aspecten beïnvloeden de ervaring en sommige ervan kunnen worden gebruikt om een intern proces bij de patiënt op gang te trekken of te verdiepen. Deze middelen worden ingezet tijdens de hele duur van de sessie. De reeks sessies beweegt een persoon door verschillende fases: van beginner tot gevorderde, van het begin van de weg naar zelfherkenning tot het kennen van de weg en de mogelijkheid vinden om zelf verder te gaan.

Verder laat ze ook de verschillende stappen zien die worden gevolgd om het diepe onbewuste materiaal te integreren, vanaf het therapeutische kernprobleem, door de psychosomatiek, epigenetische en perinatale ervaringen, tot aan de spirituele ervaringen. Meckel Fischer geeft veel voorbeelden en laat zien hoezeer de verhalen van de mensen die ze heeft begeleid passen binnen de stappen die ze opsomt. Het lijkt een universeel proces te zijn dat lijkt op de heldenreis, die werd gepopulariseerd door Joseph Campbell.

De auteur eindigt met een discussie over de gevaren en bijwerkingen van de psychoactieve stoffen in de psycholytische therapie. Een van de meest belangrijke gevaren is natuurlijk de illegaliteit, ook al gelooft ze dat dit onder bepaalde omstandigheden de deelnemers kan helpen om verantwoordelijkheid te nemen in het proces waar ze aan deelnemen. Kort brengt ze het psycholytisch therapeutisch proces in verband met sjamanisme, genezing en spiritualiteit, maar gaat niet echt diep in op deze ideeën. In de conclusie geeft ze hints naar wat er voorbij de psycholytische therapie ligt: iets wat geen therapie meer is, maar wat ons wereldbeeld heelt en ons meer integreert in onze omgeving en onze manier van kijken holistischer maakt.

Soms wordt de indruk gewekt dat de auteur al te gemakkelijk claimt dat haar persoonlijke ervaringen met bepaalde stoffen universeel zijn; dit is in het bijzonder te merken in de beschrijving van de effecten van de verschillende stoffen. In andere gevallen erkent ze dat haar ervaring haar eigen is, maar over het algemeen is de toon van de eerste voorbeelden zo dat het lijkt alsof ze het toch anders ziet. Meckel Fischer heeft het over een enkele manier waarop psycholytische therapie geconceptualiseerd en bedreven kan worden, en lijkt niet in te zien dat andere methodes mogelijk zijn. Toch klinkt de wijsheid in het boek oprecht. Er zijn kleine pareltjes van wijsheid waarvan men realiseert dat er een diepere waarheid achter schuilt, zoals: “De intentie zoals deze wordt geuit op de avond voor de sessie is de eerste stap in het proces van integratie”. Andere lijken tegengesteld aan het idee dat een enkele sessie genoeg zou zijn: “De vaardigheid om ‘onder invloed’ te zijn, en te leren om in die toestand het innerlijke zelf op geconcentreerde en gedisciplineerde wijze gade te slaan, neemt toe naarmate men oefent.”

Al met al biedt het boek een boeiende kijk op een veelbelovende manier waarop psychedelica gebruikt kunnen worden. Deze benadering zou vrij gemakkelijk in onze maatschappij kunnen worden geïntegreerd, omdat ze ingebouwde mechanismen bevat die de risico’s minimaliseren en de positieve resultaten optimaliseren, en bovendien medisch en psychologisch toezicht inhoudt. Het is een actueel boek, dat kan helpen om het vak van psycholytische therapie te institutionaliseren in iets wat geleerd, beoefend en aan anderen kan worden onderwezen door ervaring. Meckel Fischer pleit er ook overtuigend voor dat ervaren beoefenaars nieuwelingen zouden helpen. Ook worden stoornissen op een meer integrale en holistische wijze bekeken, wat laat zien dat niemand compleet mentaal gezond of gestoord is, maar dat iedereen baat kan hebben bij diepgaande therapie. Het is een boek voor al wie geïnteresseerd is in het doen van serieus therapeutisch werk met psychedelica, ofwel alleen, of – wanneer de juridische restricties worden opgeheven – in de vorm van individuele of groepstherapie.

Koop dit boek via bookdepository.com en steun daarmee stichting OPEN

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Psychedelic Medicine: Is it a False Dawn or a Renaissance?

Abstract

Aim: There has been renewed interest in “psychedelics” in the last 10 years and their usefulness in Psychiatric treatment explored. The aim of the article is to highlight current controversies surrounding psychedelics medicinal uses and address imminent international legislation changes and the effects these will have in the face of new evidence showing their efficacy in some resistant mental health diagnoses.
Conclusion: Possession and use of drugs that fall under the category of psychedelics is criminalized universally. They are considered to have no medical use and high potential for abuse. The dissensus about their use in treatment of mental disorders continues and there is a lack of compelling evidence proving their efficacy. Their use has far been limited to a handful of research centers, due to their criminalization, but the evidence is building and becoming very hard to ignore.
Ali, A. Y. (2016). Psychedelic Medicine: Is it a False Dawn or a Renaissance?. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience, 2016.
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Genotoxic evaluations in Wistar rats of the hallucinogenic plant extract ayahuasca

Abstract

Ayahuasca, a psychoactive infusion, is a sacrament used by indigenous and non-indigenous communities in Brazil and other countries. This beverage has vaunted healing properties; however, its use in a therapeutic context still lacks preclinical data to certify its safety and effectiveness. This study evaluated the genotoxic, mutagenic and cytotoxic potential of ayahuasca in Wistar rats after a single oral dose. Rats of both sexes were randomly distributed into five experimental groups (n=10): negative control that received filtered water, positive control that received doxorubicin and treated groups that received ayahuasca at 1, 5 and 15 times the usual dose taken in human religious rituals. The rats were euthanized 30 hours after dosage. Genotoxicity was evaluated by flow cytometry, comet assay and micronucleus test. Renal, hepatic and pancreatic functions were evaluated by serum analysis. Ayahuasca showed low genotoxicity, with an increased frequency of micronuclei only at the highest exposure level, and a non-observed-adverse-effect-level established at 5X the dose, or 1.5 mg/kg bw N,N-dimethyltryptamine a major component of the infusion. No cytotoxic effects were observed in the tested conditions. Furthermore, hepatic, renal and pancreatic functions remained without significant changes for all treated groups.

Pic-Taylor, A., Junior, W. M., Souza-Filho, J., Grisolia, C. K., & Caldas, E. D. (2016). Genotoxic evaluations in Wistar rats of the hallucinogenic plant extract ayahuasca. International Journal of Phytomedicine, 8(2). http://dx.doi.org/10.5138/ijpm.v8i2.1828
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As Molly Takes The Party Toll: MDMA Toxicity Presenting With Pulmonary Hemorrhage

Khalid, F., Kowsika, S., Ghobrial, I., & Rehman, S. (2016). As Molly Takes The Party Toll: MDMA Toxicity Presenting With Pulmonary Hemorrhage. In A46. LUNG DISEASE DUE TO OTC AND ILLICITS: CASE REPORTS (pp. A1616-A1616). American Thoracic Society.
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Influence of caffeine on 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-induced dopaminergic neuron degeneration and neuroinflammation is age-dependent

Abstract

Previous studies have demonstrated that caffeine administration to adult mice potentiates glial activation induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). As neuroinflammatory response seems to correlate with neurodegeneration, and the young brain is particularly vulnerable to neurotoxicity, we evaluated dopamine neuron degeneration and glial activation in the caudate-putamen (CPu) and substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) of adolescent and adult mice. Mice were treated with MDMA (4 × 20 mg/kg), alone or with caffeine (10 mg/kg). Interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) were evaluated in CPu, whereas tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), glial fibrillary acidic protein, and CD11b were evaluated in CPu and SNc by immunohistochemistry. MDMA decreased TH in SNc of both adolescent and adult mice, whereas TH-positive fibers in CPu were only decreased in adults. In CPu of adolescent mice, caffeine potentiated MDMA-induced glial fibrillary acidic protein without altering CD11b, whereas in SNc caffeine did not influence MDMA-induced glial activation. nNOS, IL-1β, and TNF-α were increased by MDMA in CPu of adults, whereas in adolescents, levels were only elevated after combined MDMA plus caffeine. Caffeine alone modified only nNOS. Results suggest that the use of MDMA in association with caffeine during adolescence may exacerbate the neurotoxicity and neuroinflammation elicited by MDMA. Previous studies have demonstrated that caffeine potentiated glial activation induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in adult mice. In this study, caffeine was shown to potentiate MDMA-induced dopamine neuron degeneration in substantia nigra pars compacta, astrogliosis, and TNF-α levels in caudate-putamen of adolescent mice. Results suggest that combined use of MDMA plus caffeine during adolescence may worsen the neurotoxicity and neuroinflammation elicited by MDMA.

Frau, L., Costa, G., Porceddu, P. F., Khairnar, A., Castelli, M. P., Ennas, M. G., … & Morelli, M. (2016). Influence of caffeine on 3, 4‐methylenedioxymethamphetamine‐induced dopaminergic neuron degeneration and neuroinflammation is age‐dependent. Journal of neurochemistry, 136(1), 148-162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jnc.13377

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Effects of Long-Term Ayahuasca Administration on Memory and Anxiety in Rats

Abstract

Ayahuasca is a hallucinogenic beverage that combines the action of the 5-HT2A/2C agonist N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) from Psychotria viridis with the monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) induced by beta-carbonyls from Banisteriopsis caapi. Previous investigations have highlighted the involvement of ayahuasca with the activation of brain regions known to be involved with episodic memory, contextual associations and emotional processing after ayahuasca ingestion. Moreover long term users show better performance in neuropsychological tests when tested in off-drug condition. This study evaluated the effects of long-term administration of ayahuasca on Morris water maze (MWM), fear conditioning and elevated plus maze (EPM) performance in rats. Behavior tests started 48h after the end of treatment. Freeze-dried ayahuasca doses of 120, 240 and 480 mg/kg were used, with water as the control. Long-term administration consisted of a daily oral dose for 30 days by gavage. The behavioral data indicated that long-term ayahuasca administration did not affect the performance of animals in MWM and EPM tasks. However the dose of 120 mg/kg increased the contextual conditioned fear response for both background and foreground fear conditioning. The tone conditioned response was not affected after long-term administration. In addition, the increase in the contextual fear response was maintained during the repeated sessions several weeks after training. Taken together, these data showed that long-term ayahuasca administration in rats can interfere with the contextual association of emotional events, which is in agreement with the fact that the beverage activates brain areas related to these processes.

Favaro, V. M., Yonamine, M., Soares, J. C. K., & Oliveira, M. G. M. (2015). Effects of Long-Term Ayahuasca Administration on Memory and Anxiety in Rats. PloS one, 10(12), e0145840. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145840
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Neuroimaging in moderate MDMA use: A systematic review

Abstract

MDMA (“ecstasy”) is widely used as a recreational drug, although there has been some debate about its neurotoxic effects in humans. However, most studies have investigated subjects with heavy use patterns, and the effects of transient MDMA use are unclear. In this review, we therefore focus on subjects with moderate use patterns, in order to assess the evidence for harmful effects. We searched for studies applying neuroimaging techniques in man. Studies were included if they provided at least one group with an average of <50 lifetime episodes of ecstasy use or an average lifetime consumption of <100 ecstasy tablets. All studies published before July 2015 were included. Of the 250 studies identified in the database search, 19 were included.

There is no convincing evidence that moderate MDMA use is associated with structural or functional brain alterations in neuroimaging measures. The lack of significant results was associated with high methodological heterogeneity in terms of dosages and co-consumption of other drugs, low quality of studies and small sample sizes.

Mueller, F., Lenz, C., Steiner, M., Dolder, P. C., Walter, M., Lang, U. E., … & Borgwardt, S. (2016). Neuroimaging in moderate MDMA use: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 62, 21-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.12.010
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[Interview] Bill Richards: “The ideal treatment includes some kind of mystical transcendence”

Richards_BillBill (William A.) Richards is a clinical psychologist in the Psychiatry Department at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, where he has pursued research with psychedelics during the past sixteen years, including his current studies on psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy with cancer patients coping with end-of-life issues. Richards’ psychedelic research stems back to 1963; he worked with colleagues such as Walter Pahnke and Stanislav Grof in the late 1960’s and early 1970s. More recently, he details his decades of scientific scholarship on psychedelics and human consciousness in his book, “Sacred Knowledge: Psychedelics and Religious Experiences.” OPEN Foundation talked to Richards, who is immediately affable and speaks about his work with both serious and tangible enthusiasm. [fusion_builder_container hundred_percent=”yes” overflow=”visible”][fusion_builder_row][fusion_builder_column type=”1_1″ background_position=”left top” background_color=”” border_size=”” border_color=”” border_style=”solid” spacing=”yes” background_image=”” background_repeat=”no-repeat” padding=”” margin_top=”0px” margin_bottom=”0px” class=”” id=”” animation_type=”” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_direction=”left” hide_on_mobile=”no” center_content=”no” min_height=”none”][Bill Richards will be among the speakers at our ICPR 2016 conference on psychedelics research.]

You’re a clinical psychologist with formal training in theology and comparative religion and have spent your entire career investigating the promise of psychedelics in clinical treatment. How did all these disparate strains of interest come together?

When I first arrived in college, I thought I would be a minister and majored in Philosophy and minored in Psychology and Sociology. Then I went to Yale Divinity School, where I studied courses such as contemporary Hindu systems and language analysis, and my vision of religion grew increasingly rich and broad. But at the end of the first year, I wasn’t sure it was right for me.

Then I studied in Germany (at the University of Göttingen) where I accidentally stumbled on psychedelics in 1963. While I found some of the theological courses there rather pedantic—sometimes arguing over the meaning of certain Hebrew words—to my surprise, I discovered the experiential dimension of religion in the School of Medicine, where different alternative states of consciousness were taken seriously, including experiences of a religious nature often viewed as revelatory.

After Yale, I went to Andover Newton Theological School and studied the Psychology of Religion, followed by courses at Brandeis University with the Humanistic/Transpersonal psychologist, Abraham Maslow. Then I was offered a job working with psychedelics and moved from Boston to Baltimore (where I pursued psychotherapy research with LSD, DPT, MDA and psilocybin at the Maryland Psychiatric Research Center). But I felt I didn’t have the right letters after my name to qualify as a researcher so I continued my studies at Catholic University, got a PhD and became a licensed clinical psychologist.

When I went through graduate school some people seemed to look at me as if I was aimless—I studied music, philosophy, psychology and religion—but looking back, I see it was the perfect training for the work I do. I became a psychedelic therapist long before the name was even invented and somehow, I intuitively seemed to know what I was doing!

What did you initially work on in the early days?

When I arrived in Baltimore we had two federal grants from the National Institute of Mental Health to pursue research with LSD-assisted psychotherapy: one for treating alcoholics and the other for treating what we labelled “neurotics” at the time, hospitalised people who were depressed, anxious or suffering with personality disorders. I also began working with cancer patients struggling with anxiety and depression (which had minimal funding). One of the reasons I was hired was my theological background.

From working with such disparate groups, I’ve learned that people are people no matter what their diagnosis. Everyone experiences grief, guilt and anger, high points and low ones, and yearns for a philosophy or understanding that helps life make sense.

Could you please guide me through how you work with someone in a clinical setting?

The basic format for a session with a psychedelic substance is that there are two therapists present; one is the primary and the other is the co-therapist. We treat one person at a time, which allows each volunteer to have an interior focus. The subject lies on a couch; we use eyeshades and headphones to help them relax but also, to help them dive deeply into the mind. This produces a safe and productive way to work, as the subject doesn’t get distracted by sensory perceptions of what’s in the room, or any pressures to be social and interact. Typically, people experience more profound content when an initial psychedelic session is structured in this manner than they might otherwise in a different setting. In terms of measuring the variables, it’s also easier to work with one person at a time. If several subjects were in the room, simultaneously having psychedelic experiences, it would complicate the research design.

I read an article in the New Yorker mentioning how you created a set of “flight instructions” for those undergoing psychedelic therapy. At what point did you create this and why?

It’s not something I ever wrote down as a formal document; it’s more like an informal checklist shared with the subject in person. It helps to cement the relationship and promotes a sense of security. It covers practicalities from how we handle someone going to bathroom or what to do if they feel the need to vomit, to how to navigate within their field of consciousness. For example, if something threatening appears, we encourage subjects to reach out for support if they need it, and to look the threatening image in the eye. In other words, to go towards it because when people seek control by trying to avoid what’s there, that’s when they become paranoid and confused. Resistance usually comes from fighting what’s happening. Telling them to “Trust, Let go, and Be open” is our basic mantra. We also encourage them to send their intellects outside to play in the yard during the period of drug action, rather than trying to cognitively categorise the experience when it is occurring.

Many researchers posit that the power of suggestion may play a role when medical professionals administer psilocybin. Is it true that under such conditions, the patient will be more likely to fulfil the therapist’s expectations (including avoiding a bad trip)?

It’s critical that people feel safe. We suggest that people declare “Open House” in their minds, affirming that everyone and everything is welcome. I’d say the content of an interior journey is rarely influenced by suggestion, though, because people have radically different experiences in identical settings. In very low doses, psychological suggestion may play a stronger role in terms of imagery but in medium and high doses, the content seems independent of what one might expect and often quite surprising.

It’s often a struggle for people to coordinate their language and ideas with their actual experiences on psychedelics. For example, I recently worked with an atheist who had a profound spiritual experience and subsequently claimed to have “seen God”. Then there are those who yearn to experience a beatific vision of Christ, like some priests, but instead find themselves dealing with childhood issues, such as being molested. Psychedelics reliably seem to take you right to where the work needs to be done.

This unpredictability is why some people fear psychedelics, labelling them as dangerous. But for the individual undergoing the unfolding process, there’s an incredible wisdom and choreography to all of it that makes sense. In other words, what happens isn’t chaotic or by chance—it all has meaning.

You refer to psychedelics as ‘entheogens,’ which literally means a compound that “generates the divine within,” and your work is focused on mystical/religious experience and its benefits. Many religious scholars have wondered if chemically induced mystical experiences are the same as naturally occurring ones. What do you think?

There may well be a chemical substrate to everything we experience. For example, we know that DMT is naturally produced in humans. One hypothesis is that when someone deep in meditation experiences a spiritual moment, more DMT is generated, or perhaps the balance of CO2 to O2 in the blood changes, or whatever. But there’s probably always a chemical substrate that correlates with whatever we experience, with and without psychedelic substances.

I have no idea if saints throughout history ate psychogenic mushrooms in their stew or if they had mystical experiences simply due to the makeup of their natural biochemistry.

What is a gift of grace and what is induced by what we eat? Who knows? But there is no doubt that incredibly profound mystical experiences sometimes happen when one ingests psychedelics in adequate dosage in a supportive environment with serious intentions. They are wonderful tools because they are so reliably potent in helping people actually experience deep, transformative states of human consciousness. Phenomenologically, the content of transcendental psychedelic sessions (retrospectively described) appears indistinguishable from the content reported in the historical literature of mysticism, so it is probable that they indeed reflect the same quality and depth of experiencing.

You employ scientific methods to explore psychedelic experiences, or states of consciousness that often are highly individual and ineffable. Is it really possible for science to explore mystical experiences?

The science is the design of the research project. Let’s say one person gets Ritalin and the other psilocybin with the same expectation in a “double-blind” design; the only thing different is the content of the capsule, which no one knows except for the pharmacist. Science thereby establishes that, yes, it really is psilocybin that triggers profound experiences, not just suggestion because those who were administered Ritalin did not report the same experiences.[1]

I am now conducting a psychedelic study with leaders from different world religions. There’s a waiting list control group, so following screening and acceptance some are randomly assigned to immediate preparation for psilocybin while others have to wait 6 months before they enter the active phase of the study. We’re comparing what happens to those who haven’t taken psilocybin with those who have and collecting this information through questionnaires, and formal interviews with family and colleagues. We’re especially interested in studying changes in attitudes and behaviour that tend to be reported after transcendental states of consciousness have been experienced. The state of consciousness we call “mystical”, characterised by reports of unity, transcendence of time and space, intuitive knowledge, sacredness, deeply-felt positive mood and ineffability, appears not only to be awesomely meaningful for those who experience and remember it, but it also appears to facilitate what William James called “fruits for life.”

Why it is important to explore such states?

Some people just live their lives, never worrying about where we came from, where we’re going and why we’re on this little planet spinning through space. Others do. Maybe it’s a gene. Some of us have a religious or philosophical gene that wants to understand what life means. I think most people ask these questions when life gets difficult, when they’re forced to approach death (their own or a loved one’s) or even when they see the birth of a child. It’s that sense of mystery.

I like to think that, as part of our current evolution within consciousness, we are beginning to understand that we are still being created and waking up. I think the current focus on meditation, spiritual development, yoga and beyond in our culture reflects a yearning to awaken to broader consciousness. I believe mystical consciousness is simply intrinsic to our being.

Research has proven that psychedelics facilitate the occurrence of mystical forms of consciousness in healthy volunteers with a high degree of reliability. Would you then say that mystical experience is a key factor in the benefits subjects derive from psychedelic treatment?

Yes. If there could be only one key factor that would be it. Experiencing a sense of unified consciousness is life-transforming for many people. In that sense, we are not really studying the effect of psilocybin as a simple drug effect so much as we’re studying the effects of discrete alternative states of human consciousness.

The most dramatic shifts in attitudes and behaviour seem to happen in the aftermath of a mystical experience. We see changes in a person’s concept of what the nature of reality is, who they are, their connection to others; it gives them a sense of confidence that there is nothing within that cannot be forgiven and resolved; there’s an increase in self worth; an appreciation of beauty and treasuring others, even those one disagrees with. The ideal treatment appears to be one that includes both experiences of psychodynamic resolution and some kind of mystical transcendence.

Does having a psychedelic experience challenge the prevailing materialistic paradigm?

I would rather say it enriches or deepens it. Philosophically, I think the question that arises is “What is the ultimate nature of matter?” When we look at matter from the viewpoint of quantum physics, we’re just beginning to understand there are deeper substrates to the so-called “material world”.

It has been reported consistently in psychedelic research that mystical experiences, when they occur, have a powerful effect in removing the fear of death; there’s something about these states that feels more real than everyday reality. This brings up the classic mind/body problem: what is the relationship of the brain to consciousness? If, as some theorise, the brain receives and processes consciousness like a radio would a radio signal, where does consciousness actually originate? Another example: if you dissect a television set, you cannot find a trace of the blonde newscaster who just delivered the news inside of it. But the broadcast did happen—it came from somewhere. We’re at the edge of a fascinating frontier, in psychiatry, in religious studies and in physics. Ultimately, we honestly still do not know what we are.

Many first-wave studies have been criticised as being flawed in more than one way, and sometimes even unethical. Was this simply how science was done at the time, or did the ‘wild enthusiasm’ for this novel range of substances play a part in the sometimes reckless way in which experiments were conducted? Historically, it led to popular hysteria and ultimately restrictive legislation, which have taken decades to recover from.

There was a lot of early enthusiasm. When psychedelics first appeared in modern Western culture, they were just sent through the mail to therapists. Timothy Leary wasn’t the only one working with these substances. A lot of people were using them clinically at universities or in private practices, both in Europe and North America to experiment with their usefulness. While some clinicians weren’t trained as researchers and there were no control groups, many carried out studies with great responsibility and care. Psychedelics actually have a remarkable safety record. Indigenous groups have used these chemicals in their plant-based forms (ayahuasca, psilocybin-containing mushrooms, peyote, etc.) in group formats for thousands of years without anyone ever checking their blood pressure.

In the 1960’s we weren’t prepared to deal with psychedelics and many people clumsily misused them. The media reaction was alarmist and psychedelics were quickly devalued. The press is much saner now, approaching psychedelics from a much more sober, grounded perspective.

Why is that? Our research designs are much tighter today. We have gathered decades more of testimonials and statistics about how extraordinary these drugs are. The entire field has matured—we know more. We’re smarter. We’ve learned that psychedelics are not for everyone. There are a multitude of ways to explore personal and spiritual growth, so even if they one day become legally available, I don’t think everyone will be interested in using them. In fact, some people should be wisely counselled not to, such as those with some severe forms of mental illness.

Suppose that you had all means of scientific investigation ready to use, which question would you like to have answered?

In my book there are three chapters that address such questions—one on medical, one on educational and one on religious frontiers—and I could go down any of those paths. Medically, the promise of psychedelics in treating addictions appears to be very hopeful. Outside medical treatment, they may well hold great promise in facilitating creativity and perhaps that’s what I’d explore.

 One problem is that people who generally shouldn’t be taking psychedelics—such as young people, who do it recreationally—are taking them whereas responsible, established scholars aren’t. So what we frequently see in the press are stories on how young people are ending up in emergency rooms, rather than hearing about how scientists are discovering new insights through the use of psilocybin, DMT, mescaline or LSD. Steve Jobs once claimed that psychedelics gave him critical intuitive insights that enhanced his creativity in life. I would love to give well-trained physicists on the frontier of their discipline a structured psychedelic experience. There could be really valuable new insights and perspectives from such a study.

I also have a wild fantasy that some day it will be an option (for those in religious studies) to have a psychedelic experience with academic credit. Whether they are studying to become a Christian minister, Jewish rabbi, Hindu or Buddhist priest or Islamic imam, I propose that having a profound religious experience could be a part of their training, rather than relying on scriptures and traditions alone.

Do you have any plans for future psychedelic studies you would like to carry out?

I would love to see work done exploring the value of psychedelics with sociopathic personalities. The way we fill prisons today is not enlightened. There are ways of helping those with traumatised childhoods to gain a sense of personal value and respect for other people, and to develop a sense of ethics that is genuine and not imposed, but instead rises from within. It wouldn’t be cheap and it would require intensive therapy, but compared to locking someone up for life, it would still make good sense economically, as well as altruistically. Especially for young people just beginning to tumble into the prison system, such treatment just might change the course of their lives.

[1] see csp.org/psilocybin for published research studies and commentaries

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[Interview] Bill Richards: “The ideal treatment includes some kind of mystical transcendence” Read More »

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