OPEN Foundation

Author name: OPEN Foundation

Paddo’s kunnen geestelijk welzijn verbeteren

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Nieuw onderzoek van onderzoekers aan de Johns Hopkins School of Medicine heeft aangetoond dat de werkzame stof in paddo’s blijvende positieve effecten kan hebben op het welbevinden van mensen.

Het was al langer bekend dat de werkzame stof, psilocybine, bij gebruikers invloedrijke en diepgaande spirituele ervaringen kan veroorzaken. Bij hoge doseringen echter, kan het gebruik ook leiden tot bad trips, gekenmerkt door sterke gevoelens van angst en wanhoop. Het is dus belangrijk om de juiste dosis te vinden, en hier zijn de onderzoekers van Johns Hopkins in geslaagd. Het lukte ze om keer op keer bij vrijwillige proefpersonen mystieke ervaringen op te wekken, met langdurige positieve gevolgen zoals een versterkte persoonlijke groei en het gevoel meer rust te ervaren. Dit zonder nadelige bijwerkingen.

“De hoofdzaak is dat we een optimale dosering hebben gevonden, waarbij de langdurige positieve effecten optimaal zijn, terwijl de kans op het ervaren van angst zoveel mogelijk wordt beperkt,” aldus professor in de gedragsbiologie en hoofdonderzoeker Roland Griffiths.

Aan het onderzoek deden achttien proefpersonen mee, en veertien maanden na het experiment schaarde 94% van hen de psilocybine-ervaring onder de vijf meest betekenisvolle ervaringen uit hun leven; voor 39% van hen stond deze zelfs op de eerste plaats. Belangrijk is ook dat niet enkel de proefpersonen deze positieve effecten ondervonden: ook vrienden, familie en collega’s meldden dat de proefpersonen een vredigere en gelukkigere indruk op hen maakten.

Uiteindelijk willen de onderzoekers graag uitvinden of dit soort psychedelische ervaringen behulpzaam zou kunnen zijn bij bijvoorbeeld kankerpatiënten, en anderen die met grote (stervens-) angst in aanraking komen. Ook wordt tegenwoordig weer onderzoek gedaan naar of dit type ervaringen mensen zou kunnen helpen bij het beëindigen van hun verslaving, en bij de behandeling van depressie en posttraumatische stress.

De proefpersonen namen het middel in een huiskamersetting, zodat ze zich goed op hun gemak konden voelen tijdens het experiment. Dit gebeurde in een ziekenhuis, zodat medische hulp altijd nabij was. Dit laatste bleek echter in geen geval nodig.

De psilocybine-ervaring wordt vaak gekenmerkt door sterke gevoelens van eenheid, met anderen en met het universum, en een sensatie van het overstijgen van begrenzingen zoals ruimte en tijd. Niet zelden heeft deze ervaring een sterke religieuze of spirituele inslag. Achteraf is meestal moeilijk te verwoorden wat men heeft meegemaakt, maar veel van de deelnemers aan Griffiths’ experimenten meldden naderhand dat zij meer begrip hadden gekregen van zichzelf en anderen, en meer mededogen en geduld konden opbrengen. Een proefpersoon meldde dat het zijn huwelijk had verbeterd, met meer begrip over en weer, en minder veroordeling, van de ander zowel als van zichzelf.

Griffiths ontdekte dat het het beste werkt om te beginnen met een lage dosis, en gedurende opeenvolgende experimenten ervaringen geleidelijk omhoog te werken, zodat de proefpersonen ervaring konden opdoen met het middel voordat de ervaring al te ingrijpend werd. Dit in tegenstelling tot veel experimenten in het verleden (met name in de jaren ’60), waarbij vaak direct een hoge dosering werd toegediend.

Het onderzoek werd gepubliceerd in het tijdschrift Psychopharmacology.

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Psychedelic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine: metabolism, pharmacokinetics, drug interactions, and pharmacological actions.

Abstract

5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT) belongs to a group of naturally-occurring psychoactive indolealkylamine drugs. It acts as a nonselective serotonin (5-HT) agonist and causes many physiological and behavioral changes. 5-MeO-DMT is O-demethylated by polymorphic cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) to an active metabolite, bufotenine, while it is mainly inactivated through the deamination pathway mediated by monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A). 5-MeO-DMT is often used with MAO-A inhibitors such as harmaline. Concurrent use of harmaline reduces 5-MeO-DMT deamination metabolism and leads to a prolonged and increased exposure to the parent drug 5-MeO-DMT, as well as the active metabolite bufotenine. Harmaline, 5-MeO-DMT and bufotenine act agonistically on serotonergic systems and may result in hyperserotonergic effects or serotonin toxicity. Interestingly, CYP2D6 also has important contribution to harmaline metabolism, and CYP2D6 genetic polymorphism may cause considerable variability in the metabolism, pharmacokinetics and dynamics of harmaline and its interaction with 5-MeO-DMT. Therefore, this review summarizes recent findings on biotransformation, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacological actions of 5-MeO-DMT. In addition, the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic drug-drug interactions between harmaline and 5-MeO-DMT, potential involvement of CYP2D6 pharmacogenetics, and risks of 5-MeO-DMT intoxication are discussed.

Shen, H. W. , Jiang, X. L., Winter, J. C., Yu, A. M. (2013). Psychedelic 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine: metabolism, pharmacokinetics, drug interactions, and pharmacological actions. Current Drug Metabolism, 11(8),659-66.
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Psilocybin-Induced Deficits in Automatic and Controlled Inhibition are Attenuated by Ketanserin in Healthy Human Volunteers

Abstract

The serotonin-2A receptor (5-HT2AR) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and related inhibitory gating and behavioral inhibition deficits of schizophrenia patients. The hallucinogen psilocybin disrupts automatic forms of sensorimotor gating and response inhibition in humans, but it is unclear so far whether the 5-HT2AR or 5-HT1AR agonist properties of its bioactive metabolite psilocin account for these effects. Thus, we investigated whether psilocybin-induced deficits in automatic and controlled inhibition in healthy humans could be attenuated by the 5-HT2A/2CR antagonist ketanserin. A total of 16 healthy participants received placebo,ketanserin (40 mg p.o.), psilocybin (260 µg/kg p.o.), or psilocybin plus ketanserin in a double-blind, randomized, and counterbalanced order. Sensorimotor gating was measured by prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response. The effects on psychopathological core dimensions and behavioral inhibition were assessed by the altered states of consciousness questionnaire (5D-ASC), and the Color-Word Stroop Test. Psilocybin decreased PPI at short lead intervals (30 ms), increased all 5D-ASC scores, and selectively increased errors in the interference condition of the Stroop Test. Stroop interference and Stroop effect of the response latencies were increased under psilocybin as well. Psilocybin-induced alterations were attenuated by ketanserin pretreatment, whereas ketanserin alone had no significant effects. These findings suggest that the disrupting effects of psilocybin on automatic and controlled inhibition processes are attributable to 5-HT2AR stimulation. Sensorimotor gating and attentional control deficits of schizophrenia patients might be due to changes within the 5-HT2AR system.

Quednow, B. B., Kometer, M., Geyerand, M. A., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2012). Psilocybin-Induced Deficits in Automatic and Controlled Inhibition are Attenuated by Ketanserin in Healthy Human Volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37, 630-640. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npp.2011.228
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Revisiting Wasson's Soma: Exploring the Effects of Preparation on the Chemistry of Amanita Muscaria

Abstract

In 1968 R. Gordon Wasson first proposed his groundbreaking theory identifying Soma, the hallucinogenic sacrament of the Vedas, as the Amanita muscaria mushroom. While Wasson’s theory has garnered acclaim, it is not without its faults. One omission in Wasson’s theory is his failure to explain how pressing and filtering Soma, as described in the Rig Veda, supports his theory of Soma’s identity. Several critics have reasoned that such preparation should be unnecessary if equivalent results can be obtained by consuming the raw plant, as is done with other psychoactive mushrooms. In order to address these specific criticisms over 600 anecdotal accounts of Amanita muscaria inebriation were collected and analyzed to determine the impact of preparation on Amanita muscaria’s effects. The findings of this study demonstrated that the effects of Amanita muscaria were related to the type of preparation employed, and that its toxic effects were considerably reduced by preparations that paralleled those described for Soma in the Rig Veda. While unlikely to end debate over the identity of Soma, this study’s findings help to solidify the foundation of Wasson’s theory, and also to demonstrate the importance of preparation in understanding and uncovering the true identity of Soma.

Feeney, K. (2010). Revisiting Wasson’s Soma: Exploring the Effects of Preparation on the Chemistry of Amanita Muscaria. Journal of psychoactive drugs, 42(4), 499-506. https://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/02791072.2010.10400712
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Seeing with the eyes shut: Neural basis of enhanced imagery following ayahuasca ingestion

Abstract

The hallucinogenic brew Ayahuasca, a rich source of serotonergic agonists and reuptake inhibitors, has been used for ages by Amazonian populations during religious ceremonies. Among all perceptual changes induced by Ayahuasca, the most remarkable are vivid “seeings.” During such seeings, users report potent imagery. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging during a closed-eyes imagery task, we found that Ayahuasca produces a robust increase in the activation of several occipital, temporal, and frontal areas. In the primary visual area, the effect was comparable in magnitude to the activation levels of natural image with the eyes open. Importantly, this effect was specifically correlated with the occurrence of individual perceptual changes measured by psychiatric scales. The activity of cortical areas BA30 and BA37, known to be involved with episodic memory and the processing of contextual associations, was also potentiated by Ayahuasca intake during imagery. Finally, we detected a positive modulation by Ayahuasca of BA 10, a frontal area involved with intentional prospective imagination, working memory and the processing of information from internal sources. Therefore, our results indicate that Ayahuasca seeings stem from the activation of an extensive network generally involved with vision, memory, and intention. By boosting the intensity of recalled images to the same level of natural image, Ayahuasca lends a status of reality to inner experiences. It is therefore understandable why Ayahuasca was culturally selected over many centuries by rain forest shamans to facilitate mystical revelations of visual nature.

de Aurojo, D. B., Ribeiro, S., Cecchi, G. A., Carvalho, F. M., Sanchez, T. A., Pinto, J. P., … Santos, A. C. (2011). Seeing with the eyes shut: Neural basis of enhanced imagery following ayahuasca ingestion. Human Brain Mapping, 33(11), 2550-2560. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21381
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EARS onderzoekers werkgroep

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In april 2011 woonden meer dan 300 mensen het European Ayahuasca Research Symposium bij, een halfdaags symposium mede georganiseerd door Stichting OPEN en MAPS.

Dit symposium bracht onderzoekers uit heel Europa samen die de laatste jaren onderzoek hebben gedaan naar Ayahuasca en DMT vanuit o.a. de antropologie, neurowetenschappen, psychologie en religiestudies. De volgende ochtend ontmoetten de sprekers andere Europese ayahuasca onderzoekers voor een onderzoekswerkgroep achter gesloten deuren bedoeld om toekomstig Ayahuasca onderzoek en mogelijke samenwerking binnen Europa te stimuleren. De werkgroep slaagde erin om een gedeelde kennisbasis op te bouwen van lopend en aankomend Ayahuasca onderzoek, om discussies over methodologie en institutionele toestemming voor onderzoek te faciliteren, en om persoonlijke en professionele contacten te maken tussen de enkele Ayahuasca onderzoekers die Europa momenteel rijk is.

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EARS researcher workgroup

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In April 2011, over 300 people convened at the University of Amsterdam to attend the European Ayahuasca Research Symposium, a half-day seminar co-sponsored by The OPEN Foundation and MAPS.

The Symposium brought together researchers from across Europe who over the last few years have been studying ayahuasca and DMT within the disciplines of anthropology, neuroscience, psychology and religious studies. The next morning, the presenters from the seminar were joined by other European ayahuasca scholars for a closed-door researcher workgroup intended to stimulate future ayahuasca research and possible collaborations in Europe. The workgroup succeeded in building a shared knowledge base of ongoing and planned ayahuasca research, in facilitating discussions on methodology and obtaining institutional approvals for research, and in developing personal and professional contacts among the few ayahuasca researchers currently based in Europe.

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Psychedelic Experience as a Heuristic Tool for Exploring the Mind and the Brain

Abstract

I discuss the ontological nature and heuristic value of psychedelic experience. I argue that psychedelic phenomena may manifest the activity of certain mental formations and brain mechanisms that otherwise remain hidden. Thus, psychedelic phenomena can be heuristic tools and intriguing objects of the scientific study. I consider two types of psychedelic phenomena in particular. The first is the moral cleansing that may accompany a psychedelic trip. The second is the appearance of visual and auditory hallucinations. I establish a unified explanatory ground for the phenomena that are commonly viewed as distinct in their genesis. I explain both types of phenomena as products of the amplified imaginative ability of the brain under a substance’s influence. I suggest that the activation of imagination causes an increased empathy and thus accentuates moral feelings. I propose the hypothesis that hallucinations are mental objects of a quantum nature. I argue that no ontologically separate reality stands behind psychedelic visions.

Alyushin, A. (2011). Psychedelic Experience as a Heuristic Tool for Exploring the Mind and the Brain. NeuroQuantology, 9(3), 577‐590. http://dx.doi.org/10.14704/nq.2011.9.3.419
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Single versus repeated sessions of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy for people with heroin dependence

Abstract

A prior study found that one ketamine-assisted psychotherapy session was significantly more effective than active placebo in promoting abstinence (Krupitsky et al. 2002). In this study of the efficacy of single versus repeated sessions of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy in promoting abstinence in people with heroin dependence, 59 detoxified inpatients with heroin dependence received a ketamine-assisted psychotherapy (KPT) session prior to their discharge from an addiction treatment hospital, and were then randomized into two treatment groups. Participants in the first group received two addiction counseling sessions followed by two KPT sessions, with sessions scheduled on a monthly interval (multiple KPT group). Participants in the second group received two addiction counseling sessions on a monthly interval, but no additional ketamine therapy sessions (single KPT group). At one-year follow-up, survival analysis demonstrated a significantly higher rate of abstinence in the multiple KPT group. Thirteen out of 26 subjects (50%) in the multiple KPT group remained abstinent, compared to 6 out of 27 subjects (22.2%) in the single KPT group (p < 0.05). No differences between groups were found in depression, anxiety, craving for heroin, or their understanding of the meaning of their lives. It was concluded that three sessions of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy are more effective than a single session for the treatment of heroin addiction.

Krupitsky, E. M., Burakov, A. M., Dunaevsky, I. V., Romanova, T. N., Slavina, T. Y., & Grinenko, A. Y. (2007). Single versus repeated sessions of ketamine-assisted psychotherapy for people with heroin dependence. Journal of psychoactive drugs, 39(1), 13-19. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.2007.10399860
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Reassessing the cultural and psychopharmacological significance of Banisteriopsis caapi: preparation, classification and use among the Piaroa of Southern Venezuela

Recent attention to the monoamine oxidase inhibiting properties of Banisteriopsis caapi‘s harmala alkaloids has precluded a balanced assessment of B. caapi‘s overall significance to indigenous South American societies. Relatively little attention has been paid to the cultural contexts, local meanings and patterns of use of B. caapi among snuff-using societies, such as the Piaroa, who do not prepare decoctions containing N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) admixtures. This article reviews the psychopharmacological literature on B. caapi in light of recent ethnographic work conducted among the Piaroa of southern Venezuela. Piaroa shamans use only B. caapi’s cambium, identify at least five distinct varieties of B. caapi, and emphasise the plant’s importance for heightening empathy. Some Piaroa people also attribute a range of extra-shamanic uses to B. caapi, including as a stimulant and hunting aid. In light of the psychopharmacological complexity of harmala alkaloids, and ethnographic evidence for a wide range of B. caapi uses, future research should reconsider B. caapi‘s cultural heritage and psychopharmacological potential as a stimulant and antidepressant-like substance.

Rodd, R. (2008). Reassessing the cultural and psychopharmacological significance of Banisteriopsis caapi: preparation, classification and use among the Piaroa of Southern Venezuela. Journal of psychoactive drugs, 40(3), 301-307. 10.1080/02791072.2008.10400645
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Reassessing the cultural and psychopharmacological significance of Banisteriopsis caapi: preparation, classification and use among the Piaroa of Southern Venezuela Read More »

Psyche & Praxis Forum: Working at the Edge of Medicine and Mysticism - January 29