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Therapeutic Application

Capturing the different health conditions that PAP may adress

Blood d-serine levels as a predictive biomarker for the rapid antidepressant effects of the NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine

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The N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonist ketamine is the most effective antidepressant drug for patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder (MDD) or bipolar disorder (BD) (Krystal et al. 2013). A single subanesthetic dose (0.5 mg/kg) of ketamine produces rapid antidepressant effects in up to two-thirds of patients with MDD and BD, and this effect can last for 7 days or more (Krystal et al. 2013; Zarate et al. 2012). However, the biochemical pathways defining the differences between patients who respond to ketamine and those who do not are currently unknown.

We read with great interest the article entitled “d-serine plasma concentration is a potential biomarker of (R,S)-ketamine antidepressant response in subjects with treatment-resistant depression,” by Moaddel et al. (2014). d-Serine acts as an endogenous, obligatory co-agonist at the NMDA receptor, and in their study, the authors reported that plasma levels of d-serine in the ketamine responder group (3.02 ± …

Hashimoto, K. (2014). Blood d-serine levels as a predictive biomarker for the rapid antidepressant effects of the NMDA receptor antagonist ketamine. Psychopharmacology, 231(20), 4081-4082. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-014-3735-7

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Ketamine safety and tolerability in clinical trials for treatment-resistant depression

Abstract

OBJECTIVE: Ketamine has demonstrated rapid antidepressant effects in patients with treatment-resistant depression (TRD); however, the safety and tolerability of ketamine in this population have not been fully described. Herein we report the largest study to date of the safety, tolerability, and acceptability of ketamine in TRD.

METHOD: Data from 205 intravenous (IV) ketamine infusions (0.5 mg/kg over 40 minutes) in 97 participants with DSM-IV-defined major depressive disorder (MDD) were pooled from 3 clinical trials conducted between 2006 and 2012 at 2 academic medical centers. Safety and tolerability measures included attrition, adverse events (AEs), hemodynamic changes, and assessments of psychosis and dissociation.

RESULTS: The overall antidepressant response rate, defined as a ≥ 50% improvement in Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale score, was 67% (65 of 97 participants). Four of 205 infusions (1.95%) were discontinued due to AEs. The overall attrition rate was 3.1% (3 of 97). In the first 4 hours after the infusion, the most common general AEs were drowsiness, dizziness, poor coordination, blurred vision, and feeling strange or unreal. Approximately one third of individuals experienced protocol-defined hemodynamic changes. Ketamine resulted in small but significant increases in psychotomimetic and dissociative symptoms (all P <.05). There were no cases of persistent psychotomimetic effects, adverse medical effects, or increased substance use in a subgroup of patients with available long-term follow-up information.

CONCLUSIONS: In this relatively large group of patients with TRD, ketamine was safe and well tolerated. Further research investigating the safety of ketamine in severe and refractory depression is warranted.

Wan, L. B., Levitch, C. F., Perez, A. M., Brallier, J. W., Iosifescu, D. V., Chang, L. C., … & Murrough, J. W. (2014). Ketamine safety and tolerability in clinical trials for treatment-resistant depression. The Journal of clinical psychiatry. https://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.13m08852

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PTSD and MDMA in the ‘picture’

a5_ptsd_508With an upcoming fMRI study in the United Kingdom, an attempt is being made to outline the neurobiological mechanisms that are hypothesized to underlie the favorable outcome of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Earlier studies found that after just a few treatment sessions with MDMA in addition to psychotherapy, there was a significant short [fusion_builder_container hundred_percent=”yes” overflow=”visible”][fusion_builder_row][fusion_builder_column type=”1_1″ background_position=”left top” background_color=”” border_size=”” border_color=”” border_style=”solid” spacing=”yes” background_image=”” background_repeat=”no-repeat” padding=”” margin_top=”0px” margin_bottom=”0px” class=”” id=”” animation_type=”” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_direction=”left” hide_on_mobile=”no” center_content=”no” min_height=”none”][1] and long [2] term improvement of PTSD symptomatology in patients that were resistant to regular psycho- and/or pharmacotherapy [3]. Up to today, not much is known about the factors that contribute to the success of this form of treatment. Several researchers suggest that MDMA, o.a. by temporarily reducing fear and by easing interpersonal contact, facilitate the therapy on a psychological level [4], but about the neurobiological foundations remains to be speculated.

By using fMRI, dr. Ben Sessa and his research team at Cardiff University will try to image the manifestation of MDMA in PTSD patients. To capture the effects of the compound in isolation, the patients will not receive any psychotherapy during this study.

The research proposal is currently waiting for approval of the Committee of Ethics.


 
[1] Mithoefer, Wagner, Mithoefer, Jerome, & Doblin (2011)
[2] Mithoefer et al. (2012)
[3] A similar study from Oehen, Traber, Widmer, & Schnyder (2013) did not reach significance on the primary measurement (p = .066), a diagnostic tool to assess PTSD symptomatology, though at a subjective level the patients indicated to have some relief from their former complaints. Bouso et al. (2008) couldn’t draw any firm conclusions on their data of the first MDMA-assisted psychotherapy study in PTSD, due to a sudden unexpected cancellation of the study and the consequencing small study sample.
[4] Bouso, Doblin, Farré, Alcázar, & Gómez-Jarabo (2008), Mithoefer et al. (2011), Oehen et al. (2013)
 
References
Bouso, J. C., Doblin, R., Farré, M., Alcázar, M. A., & Gómez-Jarabo, G. (2008). MDMA-assisted psychotherapy using low doses in a small sample of women with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 40(3), 225–36. doi:10.1080/02791072.2008.10400637
Mithoefer, M. C. M., Wagner, M. M. T., Mithoefer, A. A. T., Jerome, L., Martin, S. F., Yazar-Klosinski, B., … Doblin, R. (2012). Durability of improvement in posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and absence of harmful effects or drug dependency after 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy: a prospective long-term follow-up study. Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 27, 28–39. doi:10.1177/0269881112456611
Mithoefer, M. C., Wagner, M. T., Mithoefer, A. T., Jerome, L., & Doblin, R. (2011). The safety and efficacy of {+/-}3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy in subjects with chronic, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: the first randomized controlled pilot study. Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England) (Vol. 25, pp. 439–452). doi:10.1177/0269881110378371
Oehen, P., Traber, R., Widmer, V., & Schnyder, U. (2013). A randomized, controlled pilot study of MDMA (± 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)-assisted psychotherapy for treatment of resistant, chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Journal of Psychopharmacology (Oxford, England), 27(1), 40–52. doi:10.1177/0269881112464827[/fusion_builder_column][/fusion_builder_row][/fusion_builder_container]

Ketamine administration in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Abstract

Introduction
Ketamine’s efficacy in depressive disorders has been established in several controlled trials. The aim of the present study was to determine whether or not ketamine administration significantly improves depressive symptomatology in depression and more specifically in major depressive disorder (MDD), bipolar depression, resistant depression (non-ECT studies), and as an anesthetic agent in electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for resistant depression (ECT studies). Secondary outcomes were the duration of ketamine’s effect, the efficacy on suicidal ideations, the existence of a dose effect, and the safety/tolerance of the treatment.

Methods
Studies were included if they met the following criteria (without any language or date restriction): design: randomized controlled trials, intervention: ketamine administration, participants: diagnosis of depression, and evaluation of severity based on a validated scale. We calculated standardized mean differences (SMDs) with 95 % confidence intervals (CIs) for each study. We used fixed and random effects models. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I2 statistic.

Results
We included nine non-ECT studies in our quantitative analysis (192 patients with major depressive disorder and 34 patients with bipolar depression). Overall, depression scores were significantly decreased in the ketamine groups compared to those in the control groups (SMD = −0.99; 95 % CI −1.23, −0.75; p < 0.01). Ketamine’s efficacy was confirmed in MDD (resistant to previous pharmacological treatments or not) (SMD = −0.91; 95 % CI −1.19,−0.64; p < 0.01), in bipolar depression (SMD = −1.34; 95 % CI −1.94, −0.75), and in drug-free patients as well as patients under medication. Four ECT trials (118 patients) were included in our quantitative analysis. One hundred and three patients were diagnosed with major depressive disorder and 15 with bipolar depression. Overall, depression scores were significantly improved in the 58 patients receiving ketamine in ECT anesthesia induction compared to the 60 patients (SMD = −0.56; 95 % CI −1.10, −0.02; p = 0.04; I2 = 52.4 %). The duration of ketamine’s effects was assessed in only two non-ECT studies and seemed to persist for 2–3 days; this result needs to be confirmed. Three of four studies found significant decrease of suicidal thoughts and one found no difference between groups, but suicidal ideations were only studied by the suicide item of the depressive scales. It was not possible to determine a dose effect; 0.5 mg/kg was used in the majority of the studies. Some cardiovascular events were described (mostly transient blood pressure elevation that may require treatment), and ketamine’s use should remain cautious in patients with a cardiovascular history.

Conclusion
The present meta-analysis confirms ketamine’s efficacy in depressive disorders in non-ECT studies, as well as in ECT studies. The results of this first meta-analysis are encouraging, and further studies are warranted to detail efficacy in bipolar disorders and other specific depressed populations. Middle- and long-term efficacy and safety have yet to be explored. Extrapolation should be cautious: Patients included had no history of psychotic episodes and no history of alcohol or substance use disorders, which is not representative of all the depressed patients that may benefit from this therapy.

Fond, G., Loundou, A., Rabu, C., Macgregor, A., Lançon, C., Brittner, M. … Boyer, L. (2014). Ketamine administration in depressive disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychopharmacology, 231, 3663-3676. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-014-3664-5
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(R,S)-Ketamine metabolites (R,S)-norketamine and (2S,6S)-hydroxynorketamine increase the mammalian target of rapamycin function

Abstract

BACKGROUND: Subanesthetic doses of (R,S)-ketamine are used in the treatment of neuropathic pain and depression. In the rat, the antidepressant effects of (R,S)-ketamine are associated with increased activity and function of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR); however, (R,S)-ketamine is extensively metabolized and the contribution of its metabolites to increased mTOR signaling is unknown.

METHODS: Rats (n = 3 per time point) were given (R,S)-ketamine, (R,S)-norketamine, and (2S,6S)-hydroxynorketamine and their effect on the mTOR pathway determined after 20, 30, and 60 min. PC-12 pheochromocytoma cells (n = 3 per experiment) were treated with escalating concentrations of each compound and the impact on the mTOR pathway was determined.

RESULTS: The phosphorylation of mTOR and its downstream targets was significantly increased in rat prefrontal cortex tissue by more than ~2.5-, ~25-, and ~2-fold, respectively, in response to a 60-min postadministration of (R,S)-ketamine, (R,S)-norketamine, and (2S,6S)-hydroxynorketamine (P < 0.05, ANOVA analysis). In PC-12 pheochromocytoma cells, the test compounds activated the mTOR pathway in a concentration-dependent manner, which resulted in a significantly higher expression of serine racemase with ~2-fold increases at 0.05 nM (2S,6S)-hydroxynorketamine, 10 nM (R,S)-norketamine, and 1,000 nM (R,S)-ketamine. The potency of the effect reflected antagonistic activity of the test compounds at the α7-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor.

CONCLUSIONS: The data demonstrate that (R,S)-norketamine and (2S,6S)-hydroxynorketamine have potent pharmacological activity both in vitro and in vivo and contribute to the molecular effects produced by subanesthetic doses of (R,S)-ketamine. The results suggest that the determination of the mechanisms underlying the antidepressant and analgesic effects of (R,S)-ketamine requires a full study of the parent compound and its metabolites.

Paul, R. K., Singh, N. S., Khadeer, M., Moaddel, R., Sanghvi, M., Green, C. E., … & Wainer, I. W. (2014). (R, S)-Ketamine metabolites (R, S)-norketamine and (2S, 6S)-hydroxynorketamine increase the mammalian target of rapamycin function. The Journal of the American Society of Anesthesiologists, 121(1), 149-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ALN.0000000000000285
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Examining the psychological mechanisms of psilocybin-assisted smoking cessation treatment: A pilot study

Abstract

Anthropological evidence and early experimental studies suggest that structured administration of 5-HT2A agonist hallucinogens (e.g., LSD, psilocybin) may have potential in treating addictions, including alcoholism and opioid dependence. Psilocybin administration has been recently linked to persisting effects including personality change (i.e., increased NEO Openness), mood enhancement, and behavior change. The association between mood, personality, and addiction has been well documented, and suggests that psilocybin may be useful in the treatment of addiction.

Garcia-Romeu, A. P., Johnson, M. W., & Griffiths, R. R. (2014). Examining the psychological mechanisms of psilocybin-assisted smoking cessation treatment: A pilot study. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 140, e66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.02.200
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Harmine for catatonic schizophrenia. A forgotten experiment

Abstract

The purpose of this letter is to present a lesser-known experiment suggesting a positive response of catatonic schizophrenia to Harmine, a monoamine oxidase A inhibitor(MAO-A), a study conducted by Petre Tomescu, in the late 1920’s.

 

Hostiuc, S., Buda, O., & Ion, D. A. (2014). Harmine for catatonic schizophrenia. A forgotten experiment. Schizophrenia research, 1(159), 249-250. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2014.08.006

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Efficacy of Intravenous Ketamine for Treatment of Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Abstract

Importance  Few pharmacotherapies have demonstrated sufficient efficacy in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a chronic and disabling condition.

Objective  To test the efficacy and safety of a single intravenous subanesthetic dose of ketamine for the treatment of PTSD and associated depressive symptoms in patients with chronic PTSD.

Design, Setting, and Participants  Proof-of-concept, randomized, double-blind, crossover trial comparing ketamine with an active placebo control, midazolam, conducted at a single site (Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York). Forty-one patients with chronic PTSD related to a range of trauma exposures were recruited via advertisements.

Interventions  Intravenous infusion of ketamine hydrochloride (0.5 mg/kg) and midazolam (0.045 mg/kg).

Main Outcomes and Measures  The primary outcome measure was change in PTSD symptom severity, measured using the Impact of Event Scale–Revised. Secondary outcome measures included the Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale, the Clinical Global Impression–Severity and –Improvement scales, and adverse effect measures, including the Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale, the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale, and the Young Mania Rating Scale.

Results  Ketamine infusion was associated with significant and rapid reduction in PTSD symptom severity, compared with midazolam, when assessed 24 hours after infusion (mean difference in Impact of Event Scale–Revised score, 12.7 [fusion_builder_container hundred_percent=”yes” overflow=”visible”][fusion_builder_row][fusion_builder_column type=”1_1″ background_position=”left top” background_color=”” border_size=”” border_color=”” border_style=”solid” spacing=”yes” background_image=”” background_repeat=”no-repeat” padding=”” margin_top=”0px” margin_bottom=”0px” class=”” id=”” animation_type=”” animation_speed=”0.3″ animation_direction=”left” hide_on_mobile=”no” center_content=”no” min_height=”none”][95% CI, 2.5-22.8]; P = .02). Greater reduction of PTSD symptoms following treatment with ketamine was evident in both crossover and first-period analyses, and remained significant after adjusting for baseline and 24-hour depressive symptom severity. Ketamine was also associated with reduction in comorbid depressive symptoms and with improvement in overall clinical presentation. Ketamine was generally well tolerated without clinically significant persistent dissociative symptoms.

Conclusions and Relevance  This study provides the first evidence for rapid reduction in symptom severity following ketamine infusion in patients with chronic PTSD. If replicated, these findings may lead to novel approaches to the pharmacologic treatment of patients with this disabling condition.

Feder, A., Parides, M. K., Murrough, J. W., Perez, A. M., Morgan, J. E., Saxena, S., … & Charney, D. S. (2014). Efficacy of intravenous ketamine for treatment of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA psychiatry, 71(6), 681-688. https://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.62
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Pharmacology of Hallucinations: Several Mechanisms for One Single Symptom?

Abstract

Hallucinations are complex misperceptions, that principally occur in schizophrenia or after intoxication induced by three main classes of drugs: psychostimulants, psychedelics, and dissociative anesthetics. There are at least three different pharmacological ways to induce hallucinations: (1) activation of dopamine D2 receptors (D2Rs) with psychostimulants, (2) activation of serotonin 5HT2A receptors (HT2ARs) with psychedelics, and (3) blockage of glutamate NMDA receptors (NMDARs) with dissociative anesthetics. In schizophrenia, the relative importance of NMDAR and D2R in the occurrence of hallucinations is still debated. Slight clinical differences are observed for each etiology. Thus, we investigated whether the concept of hallucination is homogenous, both clinically and neurobiologically. A narrative review of the literature is proposed to synthesize how the main contributors in the field have approached and tried to solve these outstanding questions. While some authors prefer one explanatory mechanism, others have proposed more integrated theories based on the different pharmacological psychosis models. In this review, such theories are discussed and faced with the clinical data. In addition, the nosological aspects of hallucinations and psychosis are addressed. We suggest that if there may be common neurobiological pathways between the different pharmacological systems that are responsible for the hallucinations, there may also be unique properties of each system, which explains the clinical differences observed.

Rolland, B., Jardri, R., Amad, A., Thomas, P., Cottencin, O., & Bordet, R. (2014). Pharmacology of Hallucinations: Several Mechanisms for One Single Symptom? Biomed Research International. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/307106
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Autisme en LSD-25 – Het Bevrijden van de Meest Gevangen Geesten?

In het begin van de jaren zestig zijn er een aantal controversiële klinische studies gepubliceerd waarin jonge kinderen met een autisme en/of ‘childhood-onset schizophrenia’ (COS) [1] diagnose LSD-25 (Lysergeenzuurdi-ethylamide) kregen toegediend. De reden dat deze studies werden uitgevoerd bij jonge kinderen was de veronderstelde gelijkenis van autisme en COS. Eerdere resultaten van onderzoek met LSD bij volwassen catatonische patiënten, gepubliceerd in Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease door Cholden, Kurland en Savage (1955), dienden als inspiratie voor dit onderzoek. “The goal in these therapeutic efforts”, schreef Bender in een artikel gepubliceerd in Recent Advances in Biological Psychiatry (1962), “has been to modify the secondary symptomatology associated with retarded, regressed, and disturbed behavior of the children”. Het grootste gedeelte van de kinderen in deze studies was tussen de zes en tien jaar oud en reageerde niet op andere vormen van therapie. Dat de kinderen niet behandeld konden worden rechtvaardigde volgens de onderzoekers het gebruik van sterke psychoactieve stoffen. Dergelijk onderzoek zou tegenwoordig uiteraard niet zomaar door de ethische commissie worden geaccepteerd.

Een farmacologische interventie door middel van LSD zou de vertraagde ontwikkeling veranderen naar een (enigszins) normaal ontwikkelingspatroon (Bender, 1962). Hoe het toedienen van LSD zou kunnen resulteren in “het bevrijden van de meest gevangen geesten” was echter nog onbekend (Mogar & Aldrich, 1969). LSD zou succesvol kunnen worden ingezet bij de behandeling van autisme vanwege het vermogen “door de autistische verdediging heen te breken” (Bender, 1963), en daarom bijzonder nuttig kunnen zijn in gebieden “closely related to the process of psychotherapy” (Simmons et al., 1966). Sommigen geloofden dat LSD bijzonder bruikbaar was om patiënten te helpen onderdrukt subbewust materiaal te “deblokkeren” in combinatie met andere psychotherapeutische methoden (Cohen, 1959). Ook waren er therapeuten die zelf LSD namen om een diepere bewustwording van de schizofrene ervaring te krijgen. “During the ‘model psychosis’ phase of LSD research when the psychedelic state was considered a chemically-induced schizophrenia”, zegt pionier LSD onderzoeker Stanislav Grof (1980), “LSD sessions were recommended as reversible journeys into the experiential world of psychotics which had a unique didactic significance”.

Sommige onderzoekers, zoals Freedman et al. (1963), onderzochten LSD vanwege de zogenaamde psychotomimetische eigenschappen, waarmee wordt bedoeld dat het middel symptomen van een psychose na zou bootsen, inclusief wanen en delierachtige verschijnselen, in plaats van alleen hallucinaties op te wekken (Sewell et al., 2009). Een versterking van ‘typische’ symptomen betekende de mogelijkheid om de (kinder)schizofrene conditie te bestuderen en mogelijk een therapeutische interventie te ontwikkelen. Andere onderzoekers (Bender et al., 1963; Rolo, et al., 1965) beschouwden de neurologische mechanismen achter de effecten van LSD, die toen nog zeer obscuur waren, als belangrijker dan de rol als facilitator van het therapeutische proces. LSD wekte bijvoorbeeld theoretische interesse omdat het serotonineactiviteit zou kunnen remmen en het autonome zenuwstelsel zou stimuleren. Bender et al. (1963) concludeerden dat “het toedienen van dagelijkse orale doseringen van 100 mcg [2] LSD-25 aan prepuberale autistische schizofrene kinderen effectief lijkt te zijn als een stimulant van het autonome en centrale zenuwstelsel”, en dat deze veranderingen “chronisch lijken te zijn bij een continue toediening van het middel”. Continue toediening bestond uit het dagelijks toedienen, variërend van enkele dagen tot een paar weken. Tot de meest robuuste effecten die werden gepubliceerd behoren een verbeterde spraak, verhoogde emotionele responsiviteit, positievere stemming (veel lachen) en een vermindering van compulsief gedrag.

Maar helaas, hoe interessant en aantrekkelijk deze resultaten ook leken te zijn – het bewijs was niet sterk genoeg. Tegenwoordig zijn er geen studies naar de relatie tussen LSD en autisme en de resultaten van deze eerdere studies worden als zeer controversieel of volledig achterhaald beschouwd. Dit komt gedeeltelijk, achteraf gezien, doordat de studies zeer grote tekortkomingen hadden. De onderzoekers gingen geheel voorbij aan de conceptuele controverse omtrent de definitie van autisme en/of (kinder)schizofrenie (Bender et al., 1962). Het debat over de correcte plaats van autisme binnen de DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders) blijft tot op de dag van vandaag problematisch (DSM-V), maar autisme is al lang gescheiden van de psychotische stoornissen. Hoewel beide soorten stoornissen klinische eigenschappen delen beschouwen klinisch psychologen en psychiaters ze tegenwoordig als aparte diagnostische entiteiten. Omdat LSD onder andere werd gebruikt als een versterker van reeds bestaande symptomatologie van schizofrenie (Bender et al., 1962), zou een conceptuele scheiding tussen beide stoornissen de fundering van de resultaten hebben verzwakt.

Zelfs al hadden de onderzoekers gekozen om wel in te gaan op deze controverse, dan was de validiteit van de gebruikte steekproeven in de meeste onderzoeken achteraf gezien zeer problematisch geweest. De kinderen in de onderzoeken waren demografisch en wat leeftijd betreft erg gevarieerd. Niet alle onderzoekers waren het eens over de relatie tussen leeftijd en reactie op het middel, maar Bender stelde dat in tegenstelling tot preadolescenten, jongere kinderen consistent verschillende reacties vertoonden (1962). “Older children”, concludeerden Fisher en Castile daarentegen, “were better candidates for psychedelic therapy because verbal communication was possible and also because they tended to be less withdrawn, more schizophrenic than autistic, and displayed more blatant symptomology” (Mogar & Aldrich, 1969). Daarbij komt dat de symptomen van de behandelde kinderen heterogeen waren en dat er niet werd gecorrigeerd voor de ernst van de symptomen. Er was geen sprake van randomisering en in de meeste studies was er sprake van fluctuerende doseringen en frequentie van toediening. Ten slotte varieerde de set en setting van de experimenten sterk.

Hoewel de studies die in de jaren zestig verricht zijn belangrijke gebreken hadden vanuit een experimenteel oogpunt, beargumenteren Mogar en Aldrich in een artikel dat gepubliceerd is in Behavioral Neuropsychiatry (1969) dat de resultaten, als geheel bekeken, wel aanwijzingen bieden om de potentie van LSD bij de behandeling van autisme nader te onderzoeken. “The significance of seemingly contradictory results”, zeggen Mogar and Aldrich, “has often been obscured by the persistent search for static, ‘drug-specific’ reactions to LSD”. Dit is een interessant punt; ondanks dat de resultaten niet significant zijn in experimentele termen, is er wellicht wel een therapeutisch potentieel. Mogar en Aldrich rapporteren dat sterkere therapeutische effecten gerelateerd waren aan “(a) the degree of active therapist involvement with the patient; (b) an opportunity to experience meaningful objects and interpersonal activities; and (c) congenial settings that were reasonably free of artificiality, experimental or medical restrictions, and mechanically administered procedures” (1969). In de praktijk staat klinische therapie vaak ver van de theorie. Het zou kunnen zijn dat LSD, dat zelf ook een erg onvoorspelbaar middel is, in combinatie met de therapeutische dynamiek gewoonweg moeilijk is om te onderzoeken. “The administration of LSD is inextricably embedded in a larger psychosocial process”, concluderen Mogar en Aldrich, ”which should be optimized in accordance with particular treatment goals”.

Gezien de recente groei van aandacht voor dit onderzoeksveld, kan het nuttig zijn om deze oudere en nogal obscure studies te herevalueren. Onderzoekers van LA BioMed (Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute) zijn momenteel een studie aan het opzetten waarin de effectiviteit van MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine) bij de behandeling van sociale angst bij volwassenen met autisme zal worden onderzocht. Dit is de meest recente ontwikkeling in een groeiend programma van onderzoek naar de therapeutische eigenschappen van MDMA, gefinancierd door de non-profit Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS). “This new study will give us a chance”, zegt hoofd van het onderzoeksteam Charles Grob (2014), “to determine the actual effects of differing dosages of medication that we know for certain is pure MDMA on adults on the autism spectrum. If the results of this research warrant further investigation, data from this study will be used to design additional clinical trials”. Nu de beperkingen om de psychedelische ervaring en de therapeutische potentie van deze middelen te onderzoeken beginnen weg te vallen, en ook LSD weer opnieuw wordt onderzocht, kunnen de resultaten van deze oudere publicaties dienst doen voor het genereren van nieuwe hypothesen.


 
[1] Zie (Abramson, 1960; Bender, et al., 1962; Bender, et al., 1963; Fisher & Castile, 1963; Freedman, et al., 1962; Rolo, et al., 1965; Simmons, et al., 1966).
[2] Een gebruikelijke dosering LSD varieert van 100 tot 200 mcg, en een sterke dosering van 200 tot 600 mcg.
 
Referenties
Abramson, H.A. (Ed.) (1960). The Use of LSD in Psychotherapy. New York: Josiah Macy Foundation.
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Bender, L., Goldschmidt, L., & Sankar, S.D.V. (1962). Treatment of autistic schizophrenic children with LSD-25 and UML-491. Recent Advances in Biological Psychiatry, 4, 170-177.
Cholden, L., Kurland, A., & Savage, C. (1955). Clinical reactions and tolerance to LSD in chronic schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 122, 211-216.
Cohen, S., & Eisner, B. G. (1959). Use of lysergic acid diethylamide in a psychotherapeutic setting. AMA Archives of Neurology & Psychiatry, 81(5), 615-619.
Freedman, A.M., Ebin, E.V., & Wilson, E.A. (1962). Autistic schizophrenic children: An experiment in the use of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25). Archives of General Psychiatry, 6, 203-213.
Gettys, T. (2014). MDMA Helps Reduce Social Anxiety for Autistic Adults, and Researchers Want to Find Out How. MAPS. Retrieved at: http://www.maps.org/media/view/mdma_helps_reduce_social_anxiety_for_autistic_adults_and_researchers_w/
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