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Psychology

Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience

June 30, 2017 / LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Philosophy & Religious Studies, Psychology, Publications / By / ,

Abstract

Users of psychedelic drugs often report that their sense of being a self or ‘I’ distinct from the rest of the world has diminished or altogether dissolved. Neuroscientific study of such ‘ego dissolution’ experiences offers a window onto the nature of self-awareness. We argue that ego dissolution is best explained by an account that explains self-awareness as resulting from the integrated functioning of hierarchical predictive models which posit the existence of a stable and unchanging entity to which representations are bound. Combining recent work on the ‘integrative self’ and the phenomenon of self-binding with predictive processing principles yields an explanation of ego dissolution according to which self-representation is a useful Cartesian fiction: an ultimately false representation of a simple and enduring substance to which attributes are bound which serves to integrate and unify cognitive processing across levels and domains. The self-model is not a mere narrative posit, as some have suggested; it has a more robust and ubiquitous cognitive function than that. But this does not mean, as others have claimed, that the self-model has the right attributes to qualify as a self. It performs some of the right kinds of functions, but it is not the right kind of entity. Ego dissolution experiences reveal that the self-model plays an important binding function in cognitive processing, but the self does not exist.
Letheby, C., & Gerrans, P. (2017). Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience. Neuroscience of Consciousness, 3(1). 10.1093/nc/nix016
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Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience.

June 30, 2017 / LSD, Papers, Psychology / By / ,

Abstract

Users of psychedelic drugs often report that their sense of being a self or ‘I’ distinct from the rest of the world has diminished or altogether dissolved. Neuroscientific study of such ‘ego dissolution’ experiences offers a window onto the nature of self-awareness. We argue that ego dissolution is best explained by an account that explains self-awareness as resulting from the integrated functioning of hierarchical predictive models which posit the existence of a stable and unchanging entity to which representations are bound. Combining recent work on the ‘integrative self’ and the phenomenon of self-binding with predictive processing principles yields an explanation of ego dissolution according to which self-representation is a useful Cartesian fiction: an ultimately false representation of a simple and enduring substance to which attributes are bound which serves to integrate and unify cognitive processing across levels and domains. The self-model is not a mere narrative posit, as some have suggested; it has a more robust and ubiquitous cognitive function than that. But this does not mean, as others have claimed, that the self-model has the right attributes to qualify as a self. It performs some of the right kinds of functions, but it is not the right kind of entity. Ego dissolution experiences reveal that the self-model plays an important binding function in cognitive processing, but the self does not exist.
Letheby, C., & Gerrans, P. (2017). Self unbound: ego dissolution in psychedelic experience. Neuroscience of consciousness, 2017(1), nix016., 10.1093/nc/nix016
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Ketamine for Depression, 3: Does Chirality Matter?

June 22, 2017 / Depressive Disorders, Ketamine, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By /

Abstract

Ketamine is a racemic mixture of the enantiomers R-ketamine and S-ketamine (esketamine). S-ketamine has greater analgesic and anesthetic effects than R-ketamine and is less likely to cause psychotomimetic and other adverse effects. There is therefore an emerging interest favoring the use of S-ketamine over racemic ketamine when the drug is used for analgesia or anesthesia. This article examines preclinical and clinical literature on the antidepressant properties of S-ketamine. Animal data suggest potential advantages for R-ketamine over S-ketamine. Case reports, case series, and some small randomized controlled trials suggest that single or repeated intravenous infusions (0.2-0.4 mg/kg) or intranasal administrations (28-84 mg) of S-ketamine have antidepressant action in patients with medication-refractory depression and that the observed benefits are similar in magnitude to the antidepressant benefits reported with racemic ketamine. However, there are no direct comparisons between S-ketamine and either R-ketamine or racemic ketamine in depressed patients; therefore, it is not possible to make an informed choice when considering the enantiomers and the racemate for the indication of depression.
Andrade, C. (2017). Ketamine for Depression, 3: Does Chirality Matter?. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 78(6), e674-e677. 0.4088/JCP.17f11681
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Rapid infusion of esketamine for unipolar and bipolar depression: a retrospective chart review

June 21, 2017 / Depressive Disorders, Ketamine, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , , , , , ,

Abstract

BACKGROUND:
This study evaluated efficacy and safety of intravenous subanesthetic doses of esketamine using an administration time of 10 minutes in patients with treatment-resistant depression and bipolar depression.
METHODS:
A retrospective chart review was conducted to identify patients who met the inclusion criteria for treatment-resistant depression and bipolar depression according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision criteria, and these patients received rapid infusion of esketamine between June 2012 and December 2015. The Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) was administered to measure and score depressive symptom severity before infusion and at 24 hours, 72 hours, and 7 days after infusion. In addition, Clinical Global Impression scale was administered before and 7 days after esketamine infusion.
RESULTS:
Esketamine was administered to 30 patients. A total of 27 patients met the inclusion criteria and had MADRS evaluation data, which showed that 23 had unipolar and 4 had bipolar depression. Thirteen patients (48.1%) showed therapeutic response (MADRS reduction ≥50%) within 1 week (7 days) of intervention. Remission (MADRS <7) was observed in 10 patients (37.0%) in the same period. Therapeutic response and remission frequencies were seen in 16 (59.3%) and 11 (40.7%) patients, respectively, within 24 hours following drug infusion. The most relevant side effect observed during the esketamine infusion was dissociative symptoms ranging from mild to severe, which was reported by 11.1% of patients as a very disturbing experience.
LIMITATIONS:
This study was done retrospectively, had a small sample size, and there was no comparative group.
CONCLUSION:
The present study demonstrates that rapid infusion of esketamine is possibly not the optimal choice to administer this drug for treatment-resistant depression due to tolerability reasons. Further controlled studies are required to investigate efficacy, safety, and tolerability profiles among the different types of ketamines and methods of using this drug in depressed patients.
Correia-Melo, F. S., Argolo, F. C., Araújo-de-Freitas, L., Leal, G. C., Kapczinski, F., Lacerda, A. L., & Quarantini, L. C. (2017). rapid infusion of esketamine for unipolar and bipolar depression: a retrospective chart review. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 13, 1627. 10.2147/NDT.S135623
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Low-dose ketamine for treatment resistant depression in an academic clinical practice setting

June 20, 2017 / Depressive Disorders, Ketamine, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , , ,

Abstract

BACKGROUND:
Recent studies demonstrating a rapid, robust improvement in treatment resistant depression (TRD) following a single sub-anesthetic infusion of ketamine have generated much excitement. However, these studies are limited in their generalizability to the broader TRD population due to their subject exclusion criteria which typically limit psychiatric comorbidity, concurrent medication, and level of suicide risk. This paper describes the safety and efficacy of sub-anesthetic ketamine infusions in a naturalistic TRD patient sample participating in a real-world TRD treatment program within a major university health system.
METHODS:
The effects of a sub-anesthetic dose (0.5mg/kg) of ketamine infused IV over forty minutes on TRD patients participating in a treatment program at the University of California, San Diego was investigated by retrospectively analyzing the medical charts of 41 adult TRD patients with a diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) or Bipolar Disorder (BD).
RESULTS:
Subjects were aged 48.6, 78% white, 36.6% female, and 82.9% had MDD. Significant psychiatric comorbidity existed in 73%. Average pre-infusion BDI score was 32.6 ± 8.4 (S.D) and dropped to 16.8 ± 3.1 at 24-h post-infusion (p < 0.001). The 24-h response (≥ 50% reduction from pre-infusion) and remission (BDI <13) rates were 53.7% and 41.5%, respectively. Three quarters of responders maintained responder status at 7-days. Ketamine infusions were well tolerated with occasional nausea or anxiety and mild hemodynamic effects during the infusion.
LIMITATIONS:
Retrospective nature of this study, lack of control group and use of self-report depression ratings scales.
CONCLUSIONS:
This is the first published study of sub-anesthetic ketamine infusions in a real-world TRD population. The results suggest that this treatment is effective and well tolerated in this population.
Feifel, D., Malcolm, B., Boggie, D., & Lee, K. (2017). Low-dose ketamine for treatment resistant depression in an academic clinical practice setting. Journal of affective disorders, 221, 283-288. 10.1016/j.jad.2017.06.043
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Psilocybin-assisted therapy for anxiety and depression: implications for euthanasia

June 19, 2017 / Anxiety Disorders / PTSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Psychiatry & Medicine, Psychology, Publications / By /

Abstract

Despite their stigmatisation, psychedelic drugs are once again being clinically researched in Europe and North America. This long-awaited renaissance is showing very promising results and, unlike the pioneering research that occurred before these drugs were outlawed over 30 years ago, the current methodology is rigorous and of a very high standard.
Strauss, N. (2017). Psilocybin-assisted therapy for anxiety and depression: implications for euthanasia. The Medical Journal of Australia, 206(11), 468-469. 10.5694/mja17.00081
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Patients’ Accounts of Increased “Connectedness” and “Acceptance” After Psilocybin for Treatment-Resistant Depression

June 19, 2017 / Depressive Disorders, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , , , ,

Abstract

Objective:

To identify patients’ perceptions of the value of psilocybin as a treatment for depression.

Method:

Twenty patients enrolled in an open-label trial of psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression participated in a semistructured interview at 6-month follow-up. Thematic analysis was used to identify patients’ experiences of the treatment and how it compared with previous treatments.

Results:

Two main change processes were identified in relation to the treatment. The first concerned change from disconnection (from self, others, and world) to connection, and the second concerned change from avoidance (of emotion) to acceptance. A third theme concerned comparison between psilocybin and conventional treatments. Patients reported that medications and some short-term talking therapies tended to reinforce their sense of disconnection and avoidance, whereas treatment with psilocybin encouraged connection and acceptance.

Conclusion:

These results suggest that psilocybin treatment for depression may work via paradigmatically novel means, antithetical to antidepressant medications, and some short-term talking therapies.
Watts, R., Day, C., Krzanowski, J., Nutt, D., & Carhart-Harris, R. (2017). Patients’ Accounts of Increased “Connectedness” and “Acceptance” After Psilocybin for Treatment-Resistant Depression. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 0022167817709585.

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Dreams and psychedelics: neurophenomenological comparison and therapeutic implications

June 18, 2017 / Ayahuasca, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By /

Abstract

A resurgence of neurobiological and clinical research is currently underway into the therapeutic potential of serotonergic or ‘classical’ psychedelics, such as the prototypical psychedelic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine), and ayahuasca – a betacarboline- and dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing Amazonian beverage. However, the mechanisms of therapeutic action are still not fully explained. Given that an altered state of consciousness is a common denominator that characterizes all classical psychedelics and given that both rapid eye movement sleep (REMS) and psychedelics modulate perception, mental imagery, emotion activation, fear memory extinction, and sense of self and body, in the present article, these two states of consciousness are systematically compared, and therapeutically relevant conclusions are drawn based on available evidence.
Kraehenmann, R. (2017). Dreams and psychedelics: neurophenomenological comparison and therapeutic implications. Current neuropharmacology. 10.2174/1573413713666170619092629
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Effect of psilocybin on empathy and moral decision-making

June 16, 2017 / Depressive Disorders, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , , , ,

Abstract

Background:

Impaired empathic abilities lead to severe negative social consequences and influence the development and treatment of several psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, empathy has been shown to play a crucial role in moral and prosocial behaviour. Although the serotonin (5-HT) system has been implicated in modulating empathy and moral behaviour, the relative contribution of the various 5-HT receptor subtypes is still unknown.

Methods:

We investigated the acute effect of psilocybin (0.215mg/kg p.o.) in healthy human subjects on different facets of empathy and hypothetical moral decision-making using the Multifaceted Empathy Test (MET) (n=32) and the Moral Dilemma Task (MDT) (n=24).

Results:

Psilocybin significantly increased emotional, but not cognitive empathy compared to placebo, and the increase in implicit emotional empathy was significantly associated with psilocybin-induced changed meaning of percepts. In contrast, moral decision-making remained unaffected by psilocybin.

Conclusions:

These findings provide first evidence that psilocybin has distinct effects on social cognition by enhancing emotional empathy but not moral behaviour. Furthermore, together with previous findings psilocybin appears to promote emotional empathy presumably via activation of 5-HT2A/1A receptors suggesting that targeting 5-HT2A/1A receptors has implications for potential treatment of dysfunctional social cognition.

Pokorny, T., Preller, K. H., Kometer, M., Dziobek, I., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2017). Effect of psilocybin on empathy and moral decision-making. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology. 10.1093/ijnp/pyx047

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