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Harm potential of magic mushroom use: A review

April 1, 2011 / Humanities & Art, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , ,

Abstract

In 2007, the Minister of Health of the Netherlands requested the CAM (Coordination point Assessment and Monitoring new drugs) to assess the overall risk of magic mushrooms. The present paper is an updated redraft of the review, written to support the assessment by CAM experts. It summarizes the literature on physical or psychological dependence, acute and chronic toxicity, risk for public health and criminal aspects related to the consumption of magic mushrooms.

In the Netherlands, the prevalence of magic mushroom use was declining since 2000 (last year prevalence of 6.3% in 2000 to 2.9% in 2005), and further declined after possession and use became illegal in December 2008.

The CAM concluded that the physical and psychological dependence potential of magic mushrooms was low, that acute toxicity was moderate, chronic toxicity low and public health and criminal aspects negligible. The combined use of mushrooms and alcohol and the quality of the setting in which magic mushrooms are used deserve, however, attention.

In conclusion, the use of magic mushrooms is relatively safe as only few and relatively mild adverse effects have been reported. The low prevalent but unpredictable provocation of panic attacks and flash-backs remain, however, a point of concern.

van Amsterdam, J., Opperhuizen, A., & van den Brink, W. (2011). Harm potential of magic mushroom use: a review. Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology, 59(3), 423-429. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006
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Prehistoric mushroom use in Spain

February 7, 2022 / Humanities & Art / By

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Europeans may have used magic mushrooms to liven up religious rituals 6000 years ago. So suggests a cave mural in Spain, which may depict fungi with hallucinogenic properties – the oldest evidence of their use in Europe.

The Selva Pascuala mural, in a cave near the town of Villar del Humo, is dominated by a bull. But it is a row of 13 small mushroom-like objects that interests Brian Akers at Pasco-Hernando Community College in New Port Richey, Florida, and Gaston Guzman at the Ecological Institute of Xalapa in Mexico. They believe that the objects are the fungi Psilocybe hispanica, a local species with hallucinogenic properties.

Like the objects depicted in the mural, P. hispanica has a bell-shaped cap topped with a dome, and lacks an annulus – a ring around the stalk. “Its stalks also vary from straight to sinuous, as they do in the mural,” says Akers.

This isn’t the oldest prehistoric painting thought to depict magic mushrooms, though. An Algerian mural that may show the species Psilocybe mairei is 7000 to 9000 years old.

Read Akers’ publication A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms? for more information.

The 5-HT2A/1A Agonist Psilocybin Disrupts Modal Object Completion Associated with Visual Hallucinations

March 1, 2011 / Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Neuroscience, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , , , ,

Abstract

Background: Recent findings suggest that the serotonergic system and particularly the 5-HT2A/1A receptors are implicated in visual processing and possibly the pathophysiology of visual disturbances including hallucinations in schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease.

Methods: To investigate the role of 5-HT2A/1A receptors in visual processing the effect of the hallucinogenic 5-HT2A/1A agonist psilocybin (125 and 250 μg/kg vs. placebo) on the spatiotemporal dynamics of modal object completion was assessed in normal volunteers (n = 17) using visual evoked potential recordings in conjunction with topographic-mapping and source analysis. These effects were then considered in relation to the subjective intensity of psilocybin-induced visual hallucinations quantified by psychometric measurement.

Results: Psilocybin dose-dependently decreased the N170 and, in contrast, slightly enhanced the P1 component selectively over occipital electrode sites. The decrease of the N170 was most apparent during the processing of incomplete object figures. Moreover, during the time period of the N170, the overall reduction of the activation in the right extrastriate and posterior parietal areas correlated positively with the intensity of visual hallucinations.

Conclusions: These results suggest a central role of the 5-HT2A/1A-receptors in the modulation of visual processing. Specifically, a reduced N170 component was identified as potentially reflecting a key process of 5-HT2A/1A receptor–mediated visual hallucinations and aberrant modal object completion potential.

Kometer, M., Cahn, B. R., Andel, D., Carter, O. L., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2011). The 5-HT2A/1A Agonist Psilocybin Disrupts Modal Object Completion Associated with Visual Hallucinations. Biological Psychiatry, 69, 399–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.10.002
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Start Your Own Religion: New York State’s Acid Churches

February 23, 2011 / Humanities & Art, LSD, Papers, Publications / By /

Abstract

This paper describes a radical and short-lived spiritual movement that emerged in New York State in the 1960s. With Dr. Timothy Leary as the figurehead, two of these psychedelic religions rose to brief cultural prominence in period of 1963–1968 when Leary and his communal group made their home in the small village of Millbrook, New York. Due to negative media attention and a subsequent law enforcement crackdown brought upon at least partially by the increasingly provocative stance of the leaders of these psychedelic groups, they were forced to flee the state by early 1968. This paper establishes the historical significance of New York State’s Acid Churches within the culture of the 1960s and draws the link to today’s Neopagan and New Age movements and the rebirth of the use of psychedelic substances within the modern scientific, psychological, and therapeutic communities.

Lander, D. R. (2011).  Start Your Own Religion: New York State’s Acid Churches. Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions, 14(3), 64–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/nr.2011.14.3.64
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A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms?

February 17, 2011 / Humanities & Art, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Publications / By / , , ,

Abstract

The Selva Pascuala mural, a work of post-Paleolithic rock art in Spain, contains fungoid figures herein hypothesized to depict neurotropic fungi, especially Psilocybe hispanica, a species that occurs in a neighboring region. This hypothesis is based on features of these figures related to fungal morphology, along with ethnographic analogy, and shamanistic explanations of rock art. If correct, this interpretation would support inference of prehistoric utilization of this fungus in the region. The mural represents the first direct evidence for possible ritual use of Psilocybe in prehistoric Europe.

Akers, B. P., Ruiz, J. F., Piper, A., & Ruck, C. A. P. (2011). A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms?. Economic Botany, 65(2), 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12231-011-9152-5
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Residual neurocognitive features of long-term ecstasy users with minimal exposure to other drugs

February 15, 2011 / MDMA, Neuroscience, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , , , , ,

Abstract

Aims: In field studies assessing cognitive function in illicit ecstasy users, there are several frequent confounding factors that might plausibly bias the findings toward an overestimate of ecstasy-induced neurocognitive toxicity. We designed an investigation seeking to minimize these possible sources of bias.

Design: We compared illicit ecstasy users and non-users while (1) excluding individuals with significant life-time exposure to other illicit drugs or alcohol; (2) requiring that all participants be members of the ‘rave’ subculture; and (3) testing all participants with breath, urine and hair samples at the time of evaluation to exclude possible surreptitious substance use. We compared groups with adjustment for age, gender, race/ethnicity, family-of-origin variables and childhood history of conduct disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. We provide significance levels without correction for multiple comparisons.
Setting: Field study.
Participants: Fifty-two illicit ecstasy users and 59 non-users, aged 18–45 years.
Measurements: Battery of 15 neuropsychological tests tapping a range of cognitive functions.
Findings: We found little evidence of decreased cognitive performance in ecstasy users, save for poorer strategic self-regulation, possibly reflecting increased impulsivity. However, this finding might have reflected a pre-morbid attribute of ecstasy users, rather than a residual neurotoxic effect of the drug. Conclusions In a study designed to minimize limitations found in many prior investigations, we failed to demonstrate marked residual cognitive effects in ecstasy users. This finding contrasts with many previous findings—including our own—and emphasizes the need for continued caution in interpreting field studies of cognitive function in illicit ecstasy users.
Halpern, J. H., Sherwood, A. R., Hudson, J. I., Gruber, S. Kozin, D., & Pope Jr., H. G. (2011). “Residual neurocognitive features of long-term ecstasy users with minimal exposure to other drugs. Addiction, 106(4), 777-786. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03252.x
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Multiple receptors contribute to the behavioral effects of indoleamine hallucinogens

January 20, 2011 / Ayahuasca, DMT, LSD, Mescaline / Cacti, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Neuroscience, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / ,

Abstract

Serotonergic hallucinogens produce profound changes in perception, mood, and cognition. These drugs include phenylalkylamines such as mescaline and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine (DOM), and indoleamines such as (+)-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and psilocybin. Despite their differences in chemical structure, the two classes of hallucinogens produce remarkably similar subjective effects in humans, and induce cross-tolerance. The phenylalkylamine hallucinogens are selective 5-HT(2) receptor agonists, whereas the indoleamines are relatively non-selective for serotonin (5-HT) receptors. There is extensive evidence, from both animal and human studies, that the characteristic effects of hallucinogens are mediated by interactions with the 5-HT(2A) receptor. Nevertheless, there is also evidence that interactions with other receptor sites contribute to the psychopharmacological and behavioral effects of the indoleamine hallucinogens. This article reviews the evidence demonstrating that the effects of indoleamine hallucinogens in a variety of animal behavioral paradigms are mediated by both 5-HT(2) and non-5-HT(2) receptors.

Halberstadt, A. L., & Geyer, M.A. (2011). Multiple receptors contribute to the behavioral effects of indoleamine hallucinogens. Neuropharmacology, 61(3), 364-381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.01.017
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Pilot Study of Psilocybin Treatment for Anxiety in Patients With Advanced-Stage Cancer

January 3, 2011 / Anxiety Disorders / PTSD, Depressive Disorders, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , , , , , ,

Abstract

Context: Researchers conducted extensive investigations of hallucinogens in the 1950s and 1960s. By the early 1970s, however, political and cultural pressures forced the cessation of all projects. This investigation reexamines a potentially promising clinical application of hallucinogens in the treatment of anxiety reactive to advanced-stage cancer.

Objective: To explore the safety and efficacy of psilocybin in patients with advanced-stage cancer and reactive anxiety.

Design: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of patients with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety, with subjects acting as their own control, using a moderate dose (0.2 mg/kg) of psilocybin.

Setting: A clinical research unit within a large public sector academic medical center.

Participants: Twelve adults with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety.

Main Outcome Measures: In addition to monitoring safety and subjective experience before and during experimental treatment sessions, follow-up data including results from the Beck Depression Inventory, Profile of Mood States, and State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were collected unblinded for 6 months after treatment.

Results: Safe physiological and psychological responses were documented during treatment sessions. There were no clinically significant adverse events with psilocybin. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory trait anxiety subscale demonstrated a significant reduction in anxiety at 1 and 3 months after treatment. The Beck Depression Inventory revealed an improvement of mood that reached significance at 6 months; the Profile of Mood States identified mood improvement after treatment with psilocybin that approached but did not reach significance.

Conclusions: This study established the feasibility and safety of administering moderate doses of psilocybin to patients with advanced-stage cancer and anxiety. Some of the data revealed a positive trend toward improved mood and anxiety. These results support the need for more research in this long-neglected field.

Grob, C. S., Danforth, A. L., Chopra, G. S., Hagerty, M., McKay, C. R., Halberstadt, A. L., & Greer, G. R. (2011). Pilot Study of Psilocybin Treatment for Anxiety in Patients With Advanced-Stage Cancer. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(1), 71-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.116
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Exploring the impact of ketamine on the experience of illusory body ownership

January 1, 2011 / Ketamine, Papers, Psychology, Psychotic Disorders, Publications / By / , , , , , ,

Abstract

Background: Our sense of body ownership is profound and familiar, yet it may be misleading. In the rubber-hand illusion, synchronous tactile and visual stimulation lead to the experience that a rubber hand is actually one’s own. This illusion is emer in schizophrenia. Given the evidence that ketamine, a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist reproduces symptoms of schizophrenia, we sought to determine whether the rubber-hand illusion is augmented by ketamine.

Methods: We studied 15 healthy volunteers in a within-subjects placebo-controlled study. All volunteers carried out two versions of the rubber-hand task, each under both placebo and ketamine infusions. In one task, they saw a rubber hand being stroked in synchrony with tactile stimulation of their real, hidden hand. In the other, stroking of the real and rubber hands was asynchronous. We recorded subjective changes in sense of ownership, as well as participants’ ability to localize their hidden hand.

Results: Ketamine was associated with significant increases in subjective measures of the illusion and in hand mislocalization. Although asynchronous visuotactile stimulation attenuates the strength of the illusion during both placebo and ketamine, there remained a significant illusory effect during asynchronous visuotactile stimulation under ketamine compared with placebo. The strength of the illusion during asynchronous visuotactile stimulation correlated with other subjective effects of the drug.

Conclusions: Ketamine mimics the perturbed sense of body ownership seen in schizophrenia, suggesting that it produces a comparable alteration in integration of information across sensory domains and in the subjective and behavioral consequences of such integration.

Morgan, H. L., Turner, D. C., Corlett, P. R., Absalom, A. R., Adapa, R., Arana, F. S., … Fletcher, P. C. (2011). Exploring the impact of ketamine on the experience of illusory body ownership. Biological Psychiatry, 69(1), 35-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.07.032
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Is Ecstasy an “Empathogen”? Effects of ±3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine on Prosocial Feelings and Identification of Emotional States in Others

December 15, 2010 / MDMA, Papers, Psychology, Publications / By / , ,

Abstract

Background: Users of MDMA (“ecstasy”) report that the drug produces unusual psychological effects, including increased empathy and prosocial feelings. These “empathogenic” effects are cited as reasons for recreational ecstasy use and also form the basis for the proposed use of MDMA in psychotherapy. However, they have yet to be characterized in controlled studies. Here, we investigate effects of MDMA on an important social cognitive capacity, the identification of emotional expression in others, and on socially relevant mood states.

Methods: Over four sessions, healthy ecstasy-using volunteers (n = 21) received MDMA (.75, 1.5 mg/kg), methamphetamine (METH) (20 mg), and placebo under double-blind, randomized conditions. They completed self-report ratings of relevant affective states and undertook tasks in which they identified emotions from images of faces, pictures of eyes, and vocal cues.

Results: MDMA (1.5 mg/kg) significantly increased ratings of feeling “loving” and “friendly”, and MDMA (.75 mg/kg) increased “loneliness”. Both MDMA (1.5 mg/kg) and METH increased “playfulness”; only METH increased “sociability”. MDMA (1.5 mg/kg) robustly decreased accuracy of facial fear recognition relative to placebo.

Conclusion: The drug MDMA increased “empathogenic” feelings but reduced accurate identification of threat-related facial emotional signals in others, findings consistent with increased social approach behavior rather than empathy. This effect of MDMA on social cognition has implications for both recreational and therapeutic use. In recreational users, acute drug effects might alter social risk-taking while intoxicated. Socioemotional processing alterations such as those documented here might underlie possible psychotherapeutic benefits of this drug; further investigation of such mechanisms could inform treatment design to maximize active components of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy.

Bedia, G., Hymana, D., & de Wit, H. (2010). Is Ecstasy an “Empathogen”? Effects of ±3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine on Prosocial Feelings and Identification of Emotional States in Others. Biological Psychiatry, 68(12), 1134-1140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.08.003
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