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Mathematics and mysticism

August 14, 2015 / Mystical experiences, Other disciplines, Other subjects, Papers, Philosophy, Publications / By /

Abstract

Is there a world of mathematics above and beyond ordinary reality, as Plato proposed? Or is mathematics a cultural construct? In this short article we speculate on the place of mathematical reality from the perspective of the mystical cosmologies of the ancient traditions of meditation, psychedelics, and divination.

Abraham, R. (2015). Mathematics and Mysticism. Progress in biophysics and molecular biology. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2015.08.016
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Psilocybin-induced spiritual experiences and insightfulness are associated with synchronization of neuronal oscillations

August 1, 2015 / Consciousness, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Mystical experiences, Neuroscience, Other disciplines, Papers, Personal development, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications, Religious studies, Spirituality / By / , , ,

Abstract

Rationale

During the last years, considerable progress has been made toward understanding the neuronal basis of consciousness by using sophisticated behavioral tasks, brain-imaging techniques, and various psychoactive drugs. Nevertheless, the neuronal mechanisms underlying some of the most intriguing states of consciousness, including spiritual experiences, remain unknown.

Objectives

To elucidate state of consciousness-related neuronal mechanisms, human subjects were given psilocybin, a naturally occurring serotonergic agonist and hallucinogen that has been used for centuries to induce spiritual experiences in religious and medical rituals.

Methods

In this double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 50 healthy human volunteers received a moderate dose of psilocybin, while high-density electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings were taken during eyes-open and eyes-closed resting states. The current source density and the lagged phase synchronization of neuronal oscillations across distributed brain regions were computed and correlated with psilocybin-induced altered states of consciousness.

Results

Psilocybin decreased the current source density of neuronal oscillations at 1.5–20 Hz within a neural network comprising the anterior and posterior cingulate cortices and the parahippocampal regions. Most intriguingly, the intensity levels of psilocybin-induced spiritual experience and insightfulness correlated with the lagged phase synchronization of delta oscillations (1.5–4 Hz) between the retrosplenial cortex, the parahippocampus, and the lateral orbitofrontal area.

Conclusions

These results provide systematic evidence for the direct association of a specific spatiotemporal neuronal mechanism with spiritual experiences and enhanced insight into life and existence. The identified mechanism may constitute a pathway for modulating mental health, as spiritual experiences can promote sustained well-being and psychological resilience.

Kometer, M., Pokorny, T., Seifritz, E., & Vollenweider, F. X. (2015). Psilocybin-induced spiritual experiences and insightfulness are associated with synchronization of neuronal oscillations. Psychopharmacology, 1-14. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-015-4026-7

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Antidepressant mechanism of ketamine: perspective from preclinical studies

July 21, 2015 / Depression, Ketamine, Medicine, Neuroscience, Other disciplines, Other subjects, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By / , , ,

Abstract

A debilitating mental disorder, major depressive disorder is a leading cause of global disease burden. Existing antidepressant drugs are not adequate for the majority of depressed patients, and large clinical studies have demonstrated their limited efficacy and slow response onset. Growing evidence of low-dose ketamine’s rapid and potent antidepressant effects offers strong potential for future antidepressant agents. However, ketamine has considerable drawbacks such as its abuse potential, psychomimetic effects, and increased oxidative stress in the brain, thus limiting its widespread clinical use. To develop superior antidepressant drugs, it is crucial to better understand ketamine’s antidepressant mechanism of action. Recent preclinical studies indicate that ketamine’s antidepressant mechanism involves mammalian target of rapamycin pathway activation and subsequent synaptogenesis in the prefrontal cortex, as well as glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta (GSK-3β) inactivation. Adjunct GSK-3β inhibitors, such as lithium, can enhance ketamine’s efficacy by augmenting and prolonging its antidepressant effects. Given the potential for depressive relapses, lithium in addition to ketamine is a promising solution for this clinical issue.

Scheuing, L., Chiu, C. T., Liao, H. M., & Chuang, D. M. (2015). Antidepressant mechanism of ketamine: perspective from preclinical studies. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00249
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Psychedelics and creativity: a review of the quantitative literature

June 30, 2015 / Cacti / Mescaline, Consciousness, Creativity, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Other disciplines, Papers, Personal development, Psychology, Publications / By /

Abstract

After a 40-year hiatus, the question of whether psychedelics can increase creativity is being asked with renewed vigor. This article critically reviews the conceptual issues of studying psychedelic-induced creativity by summarizing the limited evidence on the question and suggesting two broader frameworks. There are two important challenges to researchers on this topic. One is to separate creativity from other effects of the drug that may be mistaken for creativity. The second is to develop operational measures to quantify it. This article reviews the major studies assessing creativity (or related constructs) induced by psychedelics, including a reanalysis of raw data from one study. Results are modest and inconclusive but are consistent with reports that psychedelics give rise to unusual or novel thoughts. Given the lack of robust changes in creativity measures, I suggest creativity may be too specific of a construct to accurately and fully characterize the putatively beneficial cognitive changes that psychedelic users report. Feelings of creativity may be an inconsistent result of a more general effect of these drugs, such as alterations in availability of mental representations or changes in Bayesian inference. Ultimately, creativity may not be a sufficiently creative construct to capture the beneficial effects of psychedelics.

Baggott, M. J. (2015). Psychedelics and creativity: a review of the quantitative literature. PeerJ PrePrints, 3, e1468. https://dx.doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.1202v1
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Ketamine and Other NMDA Antagonists: Early Clinical Trials and Possible Mechanisms in Depression

June 29, 2015 / Addiction, Depression, Ketamine, Other disciplines, Other subjects, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications, Safety, Toxicology / By / , , , , ,

Abstract

Objective The authors conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of ketamine and other N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists in the treatment of major depression.

Method Searches of MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and other databases were conducted for placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized clinical trials of NMDA antagonists in the treatment of depression. Primary outcomes were rates of treatment response and transient remission of symptoms. Secondary outcomes included change in depression symptom severity and the frequency and severity of dissociative and psychotomimetic effects. Results for each NMDA antagonist were combined in meta-analyses, reporting odds ratios for dichotomous outcomes and standardized mean differences for continuous outcomes.

Results Ketamine (seven trials encompassing 147 ketamine-treated participants) produced a rapid, yet transient, antidepressant effect, with odds ratios for response and transient remission of symptoms at 24 hours equaling 9.87 (4.37–22.29) and 14.47 (2.67–78.49), respectively, accompanied by brief psychotomimetic and dissociative effects. Ketamine augmentation of ECT (five trials encompassing 89 ketamine-treated participants) significantly reduced depressive symptoms following an initial treatment (Hedges’ g=0.933) but not at the conclusion of the ECT course. Other NMDA antagonists failed to consistently demonstrate efficacy; however, two partial agonists at the NMDA coagonist site, d-cycloserine and rapastinel, significantly reduced depressive symptoms without psychotomimetic or dissociative effects.

Conclusions The antidepressant efficacy of ketamine, and perhaps D-cycloserine and rapastinel, holds promise for future glutamate-modulating strategies; however, the ineffectiveness of other NMDA antagonists suggests that any forthcoming advances will depend on improving our understanding of ketamine’s mechanism of action. The fleeting nature of ketamine’s therapeutic benefit, coupled with its potential for abuse and neurotoxicity, suggest that its use in the clinical setting warrants caution.

Newport, D. J., Carpenter, L. L., McDonald, W. M., Potash, J. B., Tohen, M., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2015). Ketamine and Other NMDA Antagonists: Early Clinical Trials and Possible Mechanisms in Depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172(10), 950-966. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15040465

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Restructuring consciousness -the psychedelic state in light of integrated information theory

June 12, 2015 / Consciousness, LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Neuroscience, Other disciplines, Other subjects, Other substances, Papers, Phenomenology, Publications / By /

Abstract

The psychological state elicited by the classic psychedelics drugs, such as LSD and psilocybin, is one of the most fascinating and yet least understood states of consciousness. However, with the advent of modern functional neuroimaging techniques, the effect of these drugs on neural activity is now being revealed, although many of the varied phenomenological features of the psychedelic state remain challenging to explain. Integrated information theory (IIT) is one of the foremost contemporary theories of consciousness, providing a mathematical formalization of both the quantity and quality of conscious experience. This theory can be applied to all known states of consciousness, including the psychedelic state. Using the results of functional neuroimaging data on the psychedelic state, the effects of psychedelic drugs on both the level and structure of consciousness can be explained in terms of the conceptual framework of IIT. This new IIT-based model of the psychedelic state provides an explanation for many of its phenomenological features, including unconstrained cognition, alterations in the structure and meaning of concepts and a sense of expanded awareness. This model also suggests that whilst cognitive flexibility, creativity, and imagination are enhanced during the psychedelic state, this occurs at the expense of cause-effect information, as well as degrading the brain’s ability to organize, categorize, and differentiate the constituents of conscious experience. Furthermore, the model generates specific predictions that can be tested using a combination of functional imaging techniques, as has been applied to the study of levels of consciousness during anesthesia and following brain injury.

Gallimore, A. R. (2015). Restructuring Consciousness–the Psychedelic State in Light of Integrated Information Theory. Name: Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 346. https://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00346
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Protecting the human rights of people who use psychedelics

April 1, 2015 / LSD, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Other disciplines, Other subjects, Papers, Psychiatry, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By /

Summary

In a recent Comment Ben Sessa1 explained how the War on the Drugs worldwide has impeded development of psychiatric treatment with psychedelics such as LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) and psilocybin (found in magic mushrooms). Prohibition also had negative outcomes for the millions of individuals who find it worthwhile to use psychedelics in various cultural settings outside of those in the clinic.

Krebs, T. S. (2015). Protecting the human rights of people who use psychedelics. The Lancet, 2(4), 294.295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(15)00084-X
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A brief survey of drug use and other activities preceding mystical-religious experiences

March 20, 2015 / Anthropology, Consciousness, Mystical experiences, Other disciplines, Other subjects, Other substances, Papers, Psychology, Publications, Sociology, Spirituality / By /

Abstract

Many people report having had mystical-religious experiences. The prevalence of these experiences has increased over time, which suggests changing cultural factors may contribute the experience. I conducted an online survey of 6,209 adults to determine how common different activities, including drug use, were before the onset of a mystical-religious experience. 19.6% (1,045) reported having had a mystical-religious experience and were asked a follow-up question on their activities before the experience. The most commonly endorsed pre-onset activity categories were: Prayer, meditation, or contemplation (37.2%); Being outdoors in nature (19.6%); and Religious ceremony, practice, or ritual (16.1%). Less commonly, respondents reported fasting (5.7%) or drug use (4.7%). A large percent (35.2%) reported not engaging in any of these activities before their experiences. Psychoactive drugs and nature are precedents to mystical-religious experience that are not selectively associated with traditional religious institutions and deserve additional study.

Baggott MJ. (2015) A brief survey of drug use and other activities preceding mystical-religious experiences Available at: https://github.com/mattbaggott/mysticalsurvey/blob/master/results/Baggott%20mystical%20survey%20March2015.pdf.
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Does the Nervous System Have an Intrinsic Archaic Language? Entoptic Images and Phosphenes

August 2, 2014 / Ayahuasca, Cacti / Mescaline, DMT, Ethnobotany, Iboga / Ibogaine, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Other disciplines, Other subjects, Papers, Publications, Religious studies, Salvia / Salvinorin A / By /

Abstract

Psychoactive plants have been consumed by many cultures, cults and groups during religious rituals and ceremonies for centuries and they have been influential on the eruption of the many images, secret and religious symbols, esoteric geometrical shapes, archetypes, religious figures, philosophy of religions since the dawn of Homo sapiens. Some of the psychoactive plants used for religious purposes were; narcotic analgesics (opium), THC (cannabis), psilocybin (magic mushrooms), mescaline (peyote), ibogaine (Tabernanthe iboga), DMT (Ayahuasca and phalaris species), peganum harmala, bufotenin, muscimol (Amanita muscaria), Thujone (Absinthe, Arthemisia absinthium), ephedra, mandragora, star lotus, salvia divinorum etc. An important property of these natural chemicals is to induce the human psyche to perceive some optical forms and shapes, which are existent in the subconscious and collective unconsciousness, and which emerge during some certain trance states and ASCs. Some of these simple geometric forms are called entoptic images and phosphenes. Entopic images and phosphenes have been found in various cultural art work and the drawings of cave walls, which were formed during the shamanic religious rituals since the Neolithic times. Also entoptic images exist in many folkloric, traditional and cultures geometrical shapes. Long before the creation of languages, visual perception and information was the only source for the mankind to perceive outer world, as it is the only one in the primate world. This article reviews the possibility of an ancient forgotten visual sign and symbol language, which is genetically existent in the human brain and that, emerges out during ASCs, trance states and the consciousness altered by the psychoactive plants. The basics of this geometrical sign and symbol language may have generated the formation of some archetypal symbols and concepts, which are yet to be discovered. Near to this, emerging of many attributes of the sub-or-un-consciousness, during those “psychedelic plant journeys” had had a prodigious impact on the formation and creation of many religious “figures, characters, creatures, archetype images” that today exist, not only in the mythology, but also in many religions, as well, such as angels, spirits, Jinns, demons, Satan, mythological creatures, supra-natural creatures, gods, and goddesses. Mystical and religious experiences during the rituals using psychoactive plants may have also helped the archaic ancestral information, coded in the limbic system, to come out onto the consciousness, which may also have helped the evolution of the hominoids and Homo sapiens.

Sayin, H. U. (2014). Does the Nervous System Have an Intrinsic Archaic Language? Entoptic Images and Phosphenes. Neuroquantology, 12(3), 427-445. https://dx.doi.org/10.14704/nq.2014.12.3.756
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Enhanced repertoire of brain dynamical states during the psychedelic experience

July 2, 2014 / Consciousness, Mushrooms / Psilocybin, Neuroscience, Other disciplines, Papers, Psychology, Psychopharmacology, Publications / By / , , , ,

Abstract

The study of rapid changes in brain dynamics and functional connectivity (FC) is of increasing interest in neuroimaging. Brain states departing from normal waking consciousness are expected to be accompanied by alterations in the aforementioned dynamics. In particular, the psychedelic experience produced by psilocybin (a substance found in `magic mushrooms`) is characterized by unconstrained cognition and profound alterations in the perception of time, space and selfhood. Considering the spontaneous and subjective manifestation of these effects, we hypothesize that neural correlates of the psychedelic experience can be found in the dynamics and variability of spontaneous brain activity fluctuations and connectivity, measurable with functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Fifteen healthy subjects were scanned before, during and after intravenous infusion of psilocybin and an inert placebo. Blood-Oxygen Level Dependent (BOLD) temporal variability was assessed computing the variance and total spectral power, resulting in increased signal variability bilaterally in the hippocampi and anterior cingulate cortex. Changes in BOLD signal spectral behavior (including spectral scaling exponents) affected exclusively higher brain systems such as the default mode, executive control and dorsal attention networks. A novel framework enabled us to track different connectivity states explored by the brain during rest. This approach revealed a wider repertoire of connectivity states post-psilocybin than during control conditions. Together, the present results provide a comprehensive account of the effects of psilocybin on dynamical behaviour in the human brain at a macroscopic level and may have implications for our understanding of the unconstrained, hyper-associative quality of consciousness in the psychedelic state.

Tagliazucchi, E., Carhart-Harris, R. L., Leech, R., Nutt, D., & Chialvo, D. R. (2014). Enhanced repertoire of brain dynamical states during the psychedelic experience. Human Brain Mapping, 35(11), 5442-5456. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hbm.22562
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